Veda Grammar
Veda is an analytic language. The basic word order is subject-object-verb (SOV). Nouns do not decline, and the language features serial verb constructions.
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
There are first and second person pronouns in both singular and plural. However, third person uses demonstratives with no distinction between singular and plural. The first and second person pronouns are as follows:
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| First Person | kyun "I" | min "we" |
| Second Person | da "you" | sa "you" |
Demonstrative pronouns
In place of third person pronouns, demonstratives are used, with no plural distinction:
| Veda | English | Distance from interlocutor | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Proximal | lin | she, he, it, they, this, these | |
| Medial | sen | she, he, it, they, that, those | Close to the addressee. |
| Distal | khon | she, he, it, they, that, those | Far from both the speaker and the addressee. |
Demonstratives follow the nouns they modify. A demonstrative which precedes a noun is interpreted as the possessor of the noun.
Nouns
Possession
Nouns in Veda do not show any form of inflection. When a noun precedes another noun, it is taken to be its possessor, but there are longer ways to indicate possession if more accuracy is needed.
Direct object
Transitive verbs feature some accusative marking on the direct object. Here are some example sentences, using the particle kho, originally a verb meaning "take", which precedes direct objects of transitive verbs:
- Maq jul. "The eagle sleeps."
- Wits jul. "The mouse sleeps."
- Maq kho wits vugh. "The eagle eats a mouse."
Indirect object
For standard ditransitive verbs, the indirect object is placed after the verb:
- Maq kho tsuk shun wits. "The eagle gives a spear to the mouse."
- Wits kho tsuk shun maq. "The mouse gives a spear to the eagle."
In case of ambiguity, yu ("go") is used to mark the indirect object:
- Maq kho rǝn qas yu wits. "The eagle says something to the mouse."
- Wits kho rǝn qas yu maq. "The mouse says something to the eagle."
Adjectives
Adjectives can precede or follow the nouns they modify, i.e. they can be prepositive or postpositive, respectively. They can also bee used predicatively, and in this case behave similarly to verbs, with full verbal paradigms.
Comparison
Adjectives have forms of comparison differ in their prepositive and postpositive forms:
| Prepositive | Postpositive | English translation | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Plain Adjective | zho | large | |
| Equative | yu zho | zho yu | as large |
| Comparative | dzok zho | zho ghor | larger |
| Superlative | zho ghor mem | largest | |
| Contrastive | ung dzok zho | ung zho ghor | less large |
| Sublative | ung zho ghor mem | least large | |
When comparing the noun to something else, the postpositive form is used, and the last word of the postpositive form serves as a preposition.
Verbs
The majority of Veda grammar is based on serial verb constructions. Depending on how it is analyzed, it is either subject-verb-object (SVO) in older analysis or subject-object-verb (SOV) in modern analysis.
Aspect
Perfective
Actions can be expressed in the perfective aspect, using the verb nǝkh, meaning "finish":
- Maq jul nǝkh. "The eagle (has) slept."
- Wits jul nǝkh. "The mouse (has) slept."
- Maq kho wits vugh nǝkh. "The eagle ate (has eaten) a mouse."
Imperfective
The imperfective or progressive aspect is marked with the verb gǝn, which means "sit". It is placed before the verb. This can be seen in examples such as:
- Maq gǝn jul. "The eagle is asleep (is sleeping)."
- Wits gǝn jul. "The mouse is asleep (is sleeping)."
- Maq kho wits gǝn vugh. "The eagle is eating a mouse."
With transitive verbs, gǝn can be used without a direct object:
- Maq gǝn vugh. "The eagle eats (is eating)."
Inchoative
The verb yu ("go") is used with a verb to refer to its beginning or indicate a growing state, that is, to form the inchoative aspect:
- Maq yu jul. "The eagle goes to sleep."
- Wits yu jul. "The mouse goes to sleep."
- Maq kho wits yu vugh. "The eagle starts eating a mouse."
- Maq yu chuf. "The eagle becomes (gets) quiet."
Voice
Passive
When yu is used with a transitive verb without an explicit direct object, it is interpreted as a passive verb. The particle ag (originally a verb meaning "come") is used to mark the demoted agent and former subject, equivalent to "by" in English:
- Maq yu vugh (ag wits). "The eagle is eaten (by the mouse)."
- Wits yu vugh (ag maq). "The mouse is eaten (by the eagle)."
Causative
Causative verbs can be formed with kho, for both intransitive and transitive verbs:
- Maq kho wits jul. "The eagle makes the mouse sleep."
- Wits kho maq jul. "The mouse makes the eagle sleep."
- Maq kho wits vugh ghok. "The eagle makes the mouse eat meat."
- Wits kho maq vugh ghok. "The mouse makes the eagle eat meat."
Mood
Imperative
Imperatives are formed with kho by itself, with verb-object word order. Unless necessary, kho is not used to mark the direct object in commands.
Participles
Participles are placed before the nouns they modify.
Syntax
Copulative constructions
Veda does not have a copula. For clarity, a demonstrative can stand between the two elements, for instance:
- Mǝnghok tsuksukh. "The mortal is a spear-thrower."
- Mǝnghok lin tsuksukh. "The mortal is a spear-thrower."
Negation
To negate a verb, the verb tso (meaning "leave") is placed before the verb in intransitive sentences, or before the object in transitive sentences, as the following examples demonstrate:
- Maq tso jul. "The eagle doesn’t sleep."
- Wits tso jul. "The mouse doesn’t sleep."
- Maq tso wits vugh. "The eagle does not eat a mouse."
Notably, the particle kho is left out in negative transitive constructions.
For negation in copulative constructions, tso is placed between the two elements.
Relative clauses
Relative clauses appear before the nouns they modify with a gap for the relativized argument.