Munja'kin Grammar
Munja'kin is a very analytic, strongly head-initial verb-subject-object language. Munja'kin lacks gender, number marking on nouns or any form of agreement, but it features switch-reference particles, clusivity, differential object marking and inalienable possession.
Alternations and mutations
A pervasive feature of Munja'kin's grammar is the alternation between i and a which occurs in many derivations and compounds and usually results in a turning into i:
This phenomenon occurs because Proto-Munja'kin's vowel */e/ merged with /i/ when it was stressed and with /a/ when it was not, and stress shifts often happen when a word takes an affix (especially a suffix, as suffixation always causes stress to shift to the penultimate syllable) or forms a compound with another. However, the alternations are not always predictable even if one knows their etymology, as they do not occur in some irregular words such as hioi even though they would be expected.
Another pervasive feature is the consonant mutation caused by an, the language's most common preposition. When an precedes a word beginning with a single voiceless consonant, the consonant becomes voiced, and when it precedes a word beginning with a liquid or a sibilant, an epenthetic -d- appears between them:
A third pervasive feature is the mutation caused by -ri, the language's most common suffix. When -ri is added to a stem ending with í (usually a former sequence *[ai] in Proto-Munja'kin), ú (usually a former *[au]) or u, the final vowel's quality does not change:
If a stem ends with n, either d or g is added between it and the suffix depending on whether the stem ended with */n/ or */ŋ/ in Proto-Munja'kin (though some irregular stems like jalindri take d rather than g regardless of their etymology), and a stem-final s becomes z:
A stem-final a becomes o if it descends from a Proto-Munja'kin */a/:
Every other stem-final vowel becomes u:
A less common mutation occurs when the suffix -n is added to a stem ending with o: though some irregular stems like kuvon do not undergo this change (however, kuvon's nominalization kuvungri does), the final o usually turns into u.
Nouns, adjectives and comparisons
Munja'kin's nouns and adjectives are invariable and are not categorized into classes. Munja'kin does not use articles, so no distinction between definite and indefinite nouns is made. Some nouns like pagi may also be used as verbs, others like juru may be used as adjectives, and adjectives may be used as stative verbs, the exact role is determined by word order, as verbs precede their arguments while adjectives follow nouns.
Comparisons are made using the preposition puli, meaning "against":
Numbers may be used as nouns or adjectives.
Compounds and reduplication
Several types of compounds are attested, whose meanings are sometimes not obvious from their parts:
- Noun + noun: mun (group) + cha'kin (soil) → Munja'kin (the Munja'kin people)
- Verb + verb: pagi (move) + skua (smudge) → pagískua (trespass)
Reduplication is used for some derivations, the resulting words' meanings are lexically determined:
Some roots are no longer used alone and only appear in reduplications, for instance *nau is found in nunu but not on its own.
Pronouns
Munja'kin's pronouns distinguish clusivity, hin is used when the speaker talks about themself and the addressee, while tunga is used otherwise:
They also have a possessive form, which is used after the prepositions an and pa to express attributive possession (which preposition is used depends on the possession's nature, as explained in the prepositions' section), or as a verb to express predicative possession:
| Singular | Plural | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person | 1st Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person | ||
| Inclusive | Exclusive | ||||||
| Plain | tun | si'o | lia | hin | tunga | si'ka | li'ka |
| Possessive | toni | sa'oi | li | hini | tungí | sa'kí | li'kí |
| Reflexive | vu an doni | vu an-d-za'oi | vu an-d-li | vu an hini | vu an dungí | vu an-d-za'kí | vu an-d-li'kí |
Reflexive pronouns are formed with the particle vu, the preposition an and the possessive pronouns.
Determiners
Munja'kin's determiners have a three-way distance contrast, ni is proximal, ki is medial and kika, which was originally a reduplication of ki, is distal:
- Ni dizu — "this man" (near the speaker)
- Ki dizu — "that man" (near the hearer)
- Kika dizu — "that man over there" (away from both the speaker and the hearer)
Determiners precede nouns or may be used alone as demonstrative pronouns.
Munja'kin also has a honorific determiner hi, which precedes names and may serve as a vocative marker:
Adverbs
Munja'kin's adverbs are often identical to adjectives and usually follow verbs directly:
Alternatively, one may use the preposition ki with a noun to form an adverbial construction, for instance, mon ki vunduri means "to choose right", literally "to choose with correctness".
Prepositions
Munja'kin's prepositions generally originate from verbs and co-occur with either the plain or the possessive form of a pronoun.
Hi and pa
Munja'kin has differential object marking: the preposition hi precedes displaced direct object proper nouns or pronouns while pa precedes displaced direct object non-proper nouns. When objects directly follow verbs (when the subject is implied by lanú, for instance), they do not take a preposition:
- Lon tun hi Ojo — "I see Ojo"
- Lon tun hi lia — "I see him"
- Lon tun pa dizu — "I see the man"
- Lon tun pa dizu lanú ris lia — "I see the man and hear him"
Possession
Two prepositions may express possession in Munja'kin: an is used for inanimate inalienable possessions (such as body parts) and animate inferior possessions (such as offspring), while pa is conversely used for inanimate alienable possessions and animate superior possessions (such as parents). When the possessor is a pronoun, its possessive form is used.
- Uli an Ojo — "Ojo's face"
- Boku an-d-li — "his son"
- Jurunomi pa Ojo — "Ojo's emerald"
- Tata pa li — "his father"
Coordination and switch-reference
Munja'kin has two ways to coordinate verb phrases, both of them usually translate as "and" or just a comma:
La appears phrase-initially when the phrase's subject is different from the previous one's, it may be used in both declarative sentences and commands:
- Vundu tun la niro si'o — "I am right and you are wrong"
- Mia ua tun, la hi tanú tun! — "I have fallen, help me!"
Lanú appears instead when the phrase's subject is the same as the previous one's and does not need to be repeated, it does not appear in commands:
The preposition ki, meaning "with", also serves as "and", but is only used with noun phrases:
Monala serves as "or" and follows the noun phrases or verb phrases it conjoins:
When it conjoins verb phrases, la and lanú are also used:
- Vundu tun lanú niro monala? — "Am I right or wrong?"
- Vundu tun la vundu si'o monala? — "Am I right or are you right?"
Verbs
Munja'kin's verbs do not inflect. Tense, aspect, mood and polarity are conveyed by particles, which directly precede the verbs, or by auxiliaries, which precede the verbs and whose subjects also precede the verbs.
Munja'kin does not have a copula, it uses stative verbs or zero-copula constructions:
Verb particles
These particles directly precede verbs.
Hi turns a sentence into a command and is combined with the negative auxiliary inju to form the prohibitive hinju:
Verbs occurring without a particle carry a generic aspect, while mia expresses the perfect aspect:
Ga expresses the conditional or potential mood:
Auxiliaries
Auxiliaries precede main verbs, but the main verbs' subjects directly follow auxiliaries.
Inju expresses negation:
Momon expresses attempts:
Ambro expresses ability:
Verb derivation
Most Munja'kin verbs may be nominalized with the suffix -ri. The resulting nouns express concepts, processes or instances.
Verbs may be made causative or permissive with the prefix liz-, which becomes li- before consonants:
Verbs may also be made passive with the prefix u-, which becomes wa- before r, v- before u and o, and w- before i and a:
The suffix -n makes verbs terminative, some roots no longer occur without it:
- Kuvo (stand) → kuvon (stand up)
- Jila (root not used on its own having to do with birth) → jilan (be born)
Syntax
Word order
Munja'kin is usually a verb-subject-object language, however, sentences containing an auxiliary verb use the order auxiliary-subject-verb-object:
Agents of passive verbs are introduced by the preposition an:
- Bio (V) niruri (S) pa kou (O) — "mistakes (S) waste (V) time (O)"
- Ubio (V) kou (S) — "time (S) is wasted (V)"
- Ubio (V) kou (S) an niruri (A) — "time (S) is wasted (V) by mistakes (A)"
Relative clauses
An serves as a relativizer and is followed by a verb's nominalized form, relative clauses follow their head nouns, are VSO like the main clauses and use resumptive pronouns to relativize objects and obliques:
- Chala (S) an (R) tanuri (V) si'o (O) — "the person (S) who (R) helps (V) you (O)"
- Chala (O) an (R) tanuri (V) si'o (S) hi lia (O) — "the person (O) whom (R) you (S) help (V)" (literally "the person whom you help them")
Questions
Polar questions are only marked by intonation in Munja'kin, it has no question particle or change in word order:
Interrogative words are fronted in content questions: