Munja'kin Grammar

Munja'kin Language Navigation: Home, Phonology, Grammar, Vocabulary, Dialogue

Munja'kin is a very analytic, strongly head-initial verb-subject-object language. Munja'kin lacks gender, number marking on nouns or any form of agreement, but it features switch-reference particles, clusivity, differential object marking and inalienable possession.

Alternations

A pervasive feature of Munja'kin's grammar is the alternation between i and a which occurs in many derivations and compounds and usually results in a turning into i:

Inju → Anjuri

Hio → Kijáhao

This phenomenon occurs because Proto-Munja'kin's vowel */e/ merged with /i/ when it was stressed and with /a/ when it was not, and stress shifts often happen when a word takes an affix or forms a compound with another. However, the alternations are not always predictable even if one knows their etymology, as they do not occur in some irregular words even though they would be expected.

Nouns and adjectives

Munja'kin's nouns and adjectives are invariable and are not categorized into classes. Munja'kin does not use articles, so no distinction between definite and indefinite nouns is made. Some nouns like pagi may also be used as verbs, others like juru may be used as adjectives, and adjectives may be used as stative verbs, the exact role is determined by word order, as verbs precede their arguments while adjectives follow nouns.

Ni 'ozu marí — "this good world."

Marí ni 'ozu — "this world is good"

Comparisons are made using the preposition puli, meaning "against":

'ozu marí puli ni 'ozu — "a world better than this world"

Compounds and reduplication

Compounds of nouns and verbs are attested, the head noun usually appears before the modifier. Reduplication is used for some derivations, though the resulting words' meanings are lexically determined. Some roots are no longer used alone and only appear in reduplications.

Pronouns

Munja'kin's pronouns distinguish clusivity, hin is used when the speaker talks about themself and the addressee, while tunga is used otherwise:

Litú niu hin — "we live here" (you and I)

Litú niu tunga — "we live here" (not you)

They also have a possessive form, which is used after the prepositions an and pa to express attributive possession, or as a verb to express predicative possession:

Uli an doni — "my face" (toni mutates into doni after an)

Toni ni uli — "this face is mine"

	Singular			Plural
	1st Person	2nd Person	3rd Person	1st Person		2nd Person	3rd Person
				Inclusive	Exclusive
Plain	tun	si'o	lia	hin	tunga	si'ka	li'ka
Possessive	toni	sa'oi	li	hini	tungí	sa'kí	li'kí
Reflexive	vu an doni	vu an-d-za'oi	vu an-d-li	vu an hini	vu an dungí	vu an-d-za'kí	vu an-d-li'kí

Reflexive pronouns are formed with the particle vu, which is related to vo'u, meaning "body".

Determiners

Munja'kin's determiners have a three-way distance contrast, ni is proximal, ki is medial and kika, which was originally a reduplication of ki, is distal. Determiners precede nouns or may be used alone as demonstrative pronouns. Munja'kin also has a honorific determiner hi, which precedes names and may serve as a vocative marker.

Adverbs

Munja'kin's adverbs are often identical to adjectives and usually follow verbs directly:

Tani a'a — "a near day"

Hi pas a'a! — "stay near!"

Alternatively, one may use the preposition ki with a noun to form an adverbial construction, for instance, mon ki vunduri means "to choose right", literally "to choose with correctness".

Prepositions

Munja'kin's prepositions generally originate from verbs and co-occur with either the plain or the possessive form of a pronoun.

Hi and pa

Munja'kin has differential object marking: the preposition hi precedes displaced direct object proper nouns or pronouns while pa precedes displaced direct object non-proper nouns. When objects directly follow verbs (when the subject is implied by lanú, for instance), they do not take a preposition:

Lon tun hi Ojo — "I see Ojo"

Lon tun hi lia — "I see him"

Lon tun pa dizu — "I see the man"

Lon tun pa dizu lanú ris lia — "I see the man and hear him"

The an-mutation

An is a special preposition that causes a following consonant (but not a following cluster) to voice. It also becomes an-d- before z, l and r.

Effects of an

Initial sound	+an
p	an b
t	an d
ch	an j
k	an g
s	an-d-z
z
l	an-d-l
r	an-d-r

Possession

Two prepositions may express possession in Munja'kin: an is used for inanimate inalienable possessions (such as body parts) and animate inferior possessions (such as offspring), while pa is conversely used for inanimate alienable possessions and animate superior possessions (such as parents). When the possessor is a pronoun, its possessive form is used.

Uli an Ojo — "Ojo's face"

Boku an-d-li — "his son"

Jurunomi pa Ojo — "Ojo's emerald"

Tata pa li — "his father"

Coordination

Munja'kin has two ways to coordinate verb phrases, both of them usually translate as "and" or just a comma:

La appears phrase-initially when the phrase's subject is different from the previous one's, it may be used in both declarative sentences and commands:

Vundu tun la niro si'o — "I am right and you are wrong"

Mia ua tun, la hi tanú tun! — "I have fallen, help me!"

Lanú appears instead when the phrase's subject is the same as the previous one's and does not need to be repeated, it does not appear in commands:

Solí tun lanú minda — "I am happy and I smile"

Hi solí hi minda! — "be happy and smile!"

The preposition ki, meaning "with", also serves as "and", but is only used with noun phrases:

Solí Ojo ki Nahara — "Ojo and Nahara are happy"

Monala (which derives from mon ala, meaning "choose one") serves as "or" and follows the noun phrases or verb phrases it conjoins:

Von zali suchi an-d-za'oi, lia boku risa monala? — "Is your new child a boy or a girl?"

When it conjoins verb phrases, la and lanú are also used:

Vundu tun lanú niro monala? — "Am I right or wrong?"

Vundu tun la vundu si'o monala? — "Am I right or are you right?"

Verbs

Munja'kin's verbs do not inflect. Tense, aspect, mood and polarity are conveyed by particles, which directly precede the verbs, or by auxiliaries, which precede the verbs and whose subjects also precede the verbs. Munja'kin does not have a copula, it uses stative verbs or zero-copula constructions.

Verb particles

All know verb particles directly precede verbs.

Hi turns a sentence into a command and is combined with the negative auxiliary inju to form the prohibitive hinju:

Hi pagi! — "move!"

Hinju pagi! — "don't move!"

Verbs occurring without a particle carry a generic aspect, while mia expresses the perfect aspect:

Pagi tun — "I move"

Mia pagi tun — "I moved"

Ga expresses the conditional or potential mood:

Ga pagi tun — "I might move"

Verb derivation

Most Munja'kin verbs may be nominalized with the suffix -ri, which often cause the stem's final phoneme to change, the change is usually predictable if one knows the verb's etymology (for instance, a stem ending with a will yield -uri if the a is actually a former */e/, otherwise it will yield -ori), but some irregularities are attested. The resulting nouns express concepts, processes or instances.

Effects of -ri

Final sound	+ri
í (Proto-Munja'kin *ai)	iri
i	uri
ú (Proto-Munja'kin *au)
u
a (Proto-Munja'kin *e)
o
a	ori
n	ndri
n (Proto-Munja'kin *ŋ)	ngri
s	zri

Verbs may be made causative with the prefix liz-, which becomes li- before consonants, and may be made passive with the prefix u-, which becomes wa- before r, v- before u and o, and w- before i and a. The suffix -n makes verbs terminative, some roots no longer occur without it. It generally causes a root-final o to turn into u, though this change does not happen with some irregular verbs.

Syntax

Word order

Munja'kin is usually a verb-subject-object language, however, sentences containing an auxiliary verb use the order auxiliary-subject-verb-object.

Relative clauses

An serves as a relativizer and is followed by a verb's nominalized form. Relative clauses are VSO like the main clauses and use resumptive pronouns to relativize obliques.

Questions

Polar questions are only marked by intonation in Munja'kin, it has no question particle. Interrogative words are fronted in content questions.