Irathient Grammar

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As part of the design brief for the show Defiance, Irathient was intended to be maximally different from the Castithan language. In addition to the phonotactic constraints, the grammars were quite different, with Irathient having these typological features:

• Verb Object Subject word order
• Noun Adjective
• Noun Genitive
• Noun Relative
• Preposition Noun
• head-marking

In addition, a complete verbal sense, including all of person-marking, valency, tense, aspect, and mood, usually requires two parts, a kernel (an auxiliary) and shell (the lexical verb). For example:

Zahon ekesə haridi zlawe.

z-ah-on

I-II-TR.PERF

e-kes-ə

ACT-notice-ACT

ha-rid-i

II-saboteur-II.SG

z-lo-e

I-singer-I.SG

z-ah-on e-kes-ə ha-rid-i z-lo-e

I-II-TR.PERF ACT-notice-ACT II-saboteur-II.SG I-singer-I.SG

'The singer noticed the saboteur.'

In this example the transitive auxiliary shon is in the perfect, which together with the active form of shekesu to notice completes the sense. This extensive cross-indexing means that different parts of the sentence can be dropped without losing much of the sense, especially in context. This flexibility was useful for show dialog.

Vowel Quadrangle

An important organizing feature of Irathient grammar is the vowel quadrangle:

i		u
	ə
e		a

Several grammatical patterns are organized around alternating pairs of vowels, i ~ a and e ~ u. For example, the plural of nouns is formed by switching the final vowel with its opposite on the quadrangle:

• harathi alien, haratha aliens
• ugyure necklace, ugyuru necklaces
• tishuma human, tishumi humans

If a noun ends in a consonant, then the center of the quadrangle, ə, is used:

• nugyith tower, nugyithə towers
• undur rock, undurə rocks

The present, zaha, and imperfect, zahi, of the auxiliary verbs have this vowel exchange, as do the active, etu, and passive, utu, of non-auxiliary verbs.

The quadrangle is inspired by the conlang Afrihili.

Nouns

The other central feature of Irathient grammar is the 18 noun classes. All nouns, except multisyllabic words in the very large classes XVII and XVIII, take class prefixes. Verbs and adjectives take class marking for agreement.

Noun Class	Noun	Modifier	Agent	Patient
Class I (Irathi)	z(u)- -(e)	zw-/zu-	z-	-{e/u}z
Class II (Non-Irathi Sentient)	h(a)- -(i)	h(a)-	h-	-{a/i}h
Class III (Harmless Beasts)	t(i)- -(a)	t(i)-	t-	-{a/i}t
Class IV (Dangerous Beasts)	k(a)- -(i)	k(a)-	k-	-{a/i}k
Class V (Harmless Plants)	d(i)- -(a)	d(i)-	d-	-{a/i}d
Class VI (Dangerous Plants)	g(e)- -(u)	g(e)-	g-	-{e/u}g
Class VII (Harmless Instruments)	u(t)- -(e)	tw-/tu-	tw-	-{e/u}t
Class VIII (Dangerous Instruments)	e(k)- -(u)	k(e)-	k-	-{e/u}k
Class IX (Harmless Substances)	r(i)- -(a)	r(i)-	r-	-{a/i}r
Class X (Dangerous Substances)	s(a)- -(i)	s(a)-	s-	-{a/i}s
Class XI (Places, Passive Objects)	nu(n)- -(e)	n(u)-	n-	-{e/u}n
Class XII (Abstractions, Actions)	th(e)- -(u)	th(e)-	th-	-{e/u}th
Class XIII (Groups)	i(n)- -(a)	ny-/ni-	n-	-{a/i}n
Class XIV (Infinitives)	sh(e)- -(u)	sh(e)-	sh-	-{e/u}sh
Class XV (Diminutive Sentients)	t(i)- -(a)	h(a)-	h-	-{a/i}h
Class XVI (Diminutive Non-sentients)	t(i)- -(e)	n(u)-	n-	-{e/u}n
Class XVII (Augmentative Sentients)	gya(n)/Ø- -(a)	h(a)-	h-	-{a/i}h
Class XVIII (Augmentative Non-sentients)	gya(n)/Ø- -(e)	n(u)-	n-	-{e/u}n

Notice that XV and XVII share the same modifier, agent, and patient affixes as II, and that XVI and XVIII share the same modifier, agent, and patient affixes of XI.

The XVII and XVIII prefix gya(n)- is only attached to monosyllabic roots.

The class suffix vowels are optional. If a noun ends in a consonant, the plural takes a suffixed -ə: undur rock > undurə. If the noun ends in a vowel other than a class suffix vowel, the copy consonant is suffixed, and then -ə is suffixed: zwinya daughter > zwinyazə.

Noun Classes

Class I: Tvung Nǝzrathe (The Irathient Class)

Nominal class prefix: z-/zu-	Agentive prefix: z-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -e/-u	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): ez-/uz-
Copy consonant: z	Intransitive prefix: z-
Agreement prefix: zu-/zw-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: iza	3pl Pronoun: uze
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -za/-zi	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ze/-zu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): paza/pazi	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): paze/pazu

This class is reserved for Irathients. Terms for family members, for example, will be in this class, with class II used for aliens (including humans): zwinya (Irathient) daughter vs. hwinya (alien) daughter. Agent nouns are also in this class, such as zingma traveler (shingma to travel).

Examples(sg/pl): zrathe/zrathu Irathient, zmaine/zmainu Irathient woman, zushone/zushonu Irathient man, skir/skirə Irathient boy (note voicing assimilation of z- to s-), zwinya/zwinyazə Irathient daughter.

Class II: Tvung Nǝhazuhe (The Alien Class)

Nominal class prefix: h-/ha-	Agentive prefix: h-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -i/-a	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): ah-/ih-
Copy consonant: h	Intransitive prefix: h-
Agreement prefix: h-/ha-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: iha	3pl Pronoun: uhe
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ha/-hi	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -he/-hu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): paha/pahi	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): pahe/pahu

Class II is used for non-Irathient sentient beings. It can also be used for Irathients to indicate they are dangerous in some way, or in a pejorative sense.

Examples(sg/pl): harathi/haratha Earth-born Irathient, hamaini/hamaina alien woman, hashoni/hashona alien man, hakir/hakirə alien boy, hwinya/hwinyahə alien daughter.

Class III: Tvung Nǝtignome (The Harmless Beast Class)

Nominal class prefix: t/ti-	Agentive prefix: t-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -a/-i	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): at-/it-
Copy consonant: t	Intransitive prefix: t-
Agreement prefix: t-/ti-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: ita	3pl Pronoun: ute
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ta/-ti	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -te/-tu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lita/liti	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lite/litu

Class III is for animals that pose no harm to Irathients. We know little about the Irathient home world, but earth animals that fit the general description will gradually work their way into this class as borrowings.

Examples(sg/pl): tignoma/tignomi harmless beast, tihurthra/tihuthri Irathient animal, twimbla/twimbli Irathient animal, tlanəs/tlanəsə Irathient animal, tirwa/tirwatə Irathient animal.

Class IV: Tvung Nǝkagnome (The Dangerous Beast Class)

Nominal class prefix: k/ka-	Agentive prefix: k-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -i/-a	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): ak-/ik-
Copy consonant: k	Intransitive prefix: k-
Agreement prefix: k-/ka-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: ika	3pl Pronoun: uke
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ka/-ki	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ke/-ku
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lika/liki	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): like/liku

Class IV is for animals that are carnivores or are otherwise dangerous to Irathients.

Examples(sg/pl): kagnomi/kagnoma dangerous beast, kadumbri/kadumbra Irathient animal, kagyonggi/kagyongga Irathient animal, klim/klimə Irathient animal, kabule/kabulekə Irathient animal.

Class V: Tvung Nǝdomre (The Harmless Plant Class)

Nominal class prefix: d/di-	Agentive prefix: d-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -a/-i	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): ad-/id-
Copy consonant: d	Intransitive prefix: d-
Agreement prefix: d-/di-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: ida	3pl Pronoun: ude
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -da/-di	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -de/-du
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lida/lidi	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lide/lidu

Class V is for plants that are not dangerous, as well as food items and dishes native to Irathients.

Examples(sg/pl): domra/domri harmless ground-cover plant, dikpora/dikpori Irathient plant, digromba/digrombi Irathient plant, drurein/drurenə Irathient plant, dihagle/dihagledə type of Irathient fruit.

Class VI: Tvung Nǝgomre (The Dangerous Plant Class)

Nominal class prefix: g/ge-	Agentive prefix: g-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -u/-e	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): eg-/ug-
Copy consonant: g	Intransitive prefix: g-
Agreement prefix: g-/ge-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: iga	3pl Pronoun: uge
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ga/-gi	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ge/-gu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): liga/ligi	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lige/ligu

Class VI is for plants that are dangerous (poisonous or somehow alive), as well as food items and dishes native to Irathients which are spicy.

Examples(sg/pl): gomru/gomre a poisonous ground-cover plant, gegubadu/gegubade Irathient plant, gemergu/gemerge Irathient plant, gwangin/gwanginə Irathient plant, grazbi/grazbigə Irathient plant.

Class VII: Tvung Nondure (The Rock Class)

Nominal class prefix: ut-/u-	Agentive prefix: tw-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -e/-u	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): et-/ut-
Copy consonant: w	Intransitive prefix: t-
Agreement prefix: tw-/tu-	Adjectival modifier: ut-/u- > ot-/o-
3sg Pronoun: ita	3pl Pronoun: ute
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -twa/-twi	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -twe/-dvu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): litwa/litwi	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): litwe/lidvu

Class VII is for objects created by Irathients or other sentient beings that aren't inherently dangerous. A lot of natural objects that don't fall into other classes also end up in Class VII.

Examples(sg/pl): utagwe/utagvu belt, ukerpe/ukerpu spoon, ugyure/ugyuru necklace, undur/undurə rock, uhegma/uhegmawə rope.

Class VIII: Tvung Naigane (The Fist Class)

Nominal class prefix: ek-/e-	Agentive prefix: k-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -u/-e	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): ek-/uk-
Copy consonant: k	Intransitive prefix: k-
Agreement prefix: k-/ke-	Adjectival modifier: ek-/e- > aik-/ai-
3sg Pronoun: ika	3pl Pronoun: uke
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ka/-ki	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ke/-ku
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lika/liki	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): like/liku

Class VIII is for created objects that are inherently dangerous (such as weapons), as well as natural objects that could be dangerous (cliffs, storms). Degrees of danger are possible in made objects, with, for example, a butter knife in class VII and a steak knife in class VIII, as well as natural objects, such as tide (class VII) vs. undertow (class VIII).

Examples(sg/pl): eganu/egane fist, ekaru/ekare knife, eziru/ezire spear, egyonggur/egyonggurə gun, edonla/edonlakə cliff.

Class IX: Tvung Nǝrise (The Water Class)

Nominal class prefix: r-/ri-	Agentive prefix: r-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -a/-i	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): ar-/ir-
Copy consonant: r	Intransitive prefix: r-
Agreement prefix: r-/ri-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: ira	3pl Pronoun: ure
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ra/-ri	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -re/-ru
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lira/liri	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lire/liru

Class IX is for substances that are harmless to Irathients: liquids, gasses, some foods, some plants, plant and mineral byproducts. By there nature many of these words will be mass nouns and will not be pluralized. When they are it will refer to some conventional, countable variant of that, as in "bring me a (glass of) water."

Examples(sg/pl): risa/risi water, rivusha/rivushi air, rignogya/rignogyi sludge, rogur/rogurə soil (native to Irath), rilimu/rilimurə plasma.

Class X: Tvung Nǝsazre (The Fire Class)

Nominal class prefix: s-/sa-	Agentive prefix: s-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -i/-a	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): as-/is-
Copy consonant: s	Intransitive prefix: s-
Agreement prefix: s-/sa-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: isa	3pl Pronoun: use
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -sa/-si	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -se/-su
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lisa/lisi	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lise/lisu

Class X is for substances which are harmful to Irathients. The practice with plurals matches that of Class IX.

Examples(sg/pl): sazri/sazra fire, saktiri/saktira poison (general term), sahoshi/sahosha lightning, spom/spamə rotten or tainted meat, songmiku/songmikusə blood.

Class XI: Tvung Nǝnugyithe (The Tower Class)

Nominal class prefix: nun-/nu-	Agentive prefix: n-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -e/-u	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): {e/ei}n-/un-
Copy consonant: n	Intransitive prefix: n-
Agreement prefix: n-/nu-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: nuna	3pl Pronoun: nune
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -na/-ni	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ne/-nu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lina/lini	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): line/linu

(Note that the singular and plural independent pronoun for class XI breaks the iCa/uCe pattern of most of the other classes.)

Class XI is for places and geographical areas, as well as objects that are used passively (chair, table), and most vehicles (others will be in class VII or VIII).

Examples(sg/pl): nugyekpe/nugyekpu mountain, nunergze/nunergzu cave, nurathe/nurathu a separate Irathient-only settlement, nugyith/nugyithə tower, nukaivu/nukaivunə city.

Class XII: Tvung Nǝshelige (The Sleeping Class)

Nominal class prefix: th-/the-	Agentive prefix: th-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -u/-e	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): eth-/uth-
Copy consonant: th	Intransitive prefix: th-
Agreement prefix: th-/the-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: itha	3pl Pronoun: uthe
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -tha/-thi	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -the/-thu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): patha/pathi	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): pathe/pathu

Class XII is for abstractions. Nouns in this class are often defined in opposition to nouns in other classes or verbs associated with the root.

Examples(sg/pl): thrathu/thrathe Irathient-hood (like "humanity"), theligu/thelige sleep, theganu/thegane nine, thegyonggur/thegyonggurə weaponry, artillery, thingma/thingmathə travel, traveling.

Class XIII: Tvung Naigane (The Handful Class)

Nominal class prefix: in-/i-	Agentive prefix: n-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -a/-i	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): {a/o}n-/in-
Copy consonant: ny	Intransitive prefix: n-
Agreement prefix: ny-/ni-	Adjectival modifier: in-/i- > ain-/ai-
3sg Pronoun: ina	3pl Pronoun: ine
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -nya/-nyi	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -nye/-nyu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): linya/linyi	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): linye/linyu

(Note that the singular and plural independent pronoun for class XIII breaks the iCa/uCe pattern of most of the other classes.)

Class XIII is for groups of things or people, objects that come in bunches, and other inherently plural or grouped objects.

Examples(sg/pl): iratha/irathi a group of Irathients, igana/igani handful, iglumba/iglumbi scrotum, igonur/igonurə soil sample, inegma/inegmanyə star cluster, constellation.

Class XIV: Tvung Nǝshemingge (The Waking Class)

Nominal class prefix: sh-/she-	Agentive prefix: sh-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -u/-e	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): esh-/ush-
Copy consonant: sh	Intransitive prefix: sh-
Agreement prefix: sh-/she-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: isha	3pl Pronoun: ushe
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -sha/-shi	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -she/-shu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): pasha/pashi	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): pashe/pashu

Class XIV exclusively for verbal infinitives (which is sometimes used like a gerund, "running, jumping," etc.).

The class prefix sh- will only form a consonant cluster with a following l, r, or w. Otherwise she- is used. So, the class I prefix z- will form a cluster with k (with voicing assimilation) in skise shaman, seer, but the infinitive is shekisu sway, twist about.

Examples(sg/pl): sheminggu/shemingge to wake up, awaken, sheligu/shelige to sleep, shedroru/shedrore to breathe, shrazu/shraze to drink, shingma/shingmashə to travel.

Class XV: Tvung Nǝtiwale (The Infant Class)

Nominal class prefix: t-/ti-	Agentive prefix: h-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -a/-i	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): ah-/ih-
Copy consonant: h	Intransitive prefix: h-
Agreement prefix: h-/ha-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: iha	3pl Pronoun: uhe
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ha/-hi	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -he/-hu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): paha/pahi	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): pahe/pahu

Class XV is primarily for diminutive or slang versions of sentient beings, including pet names, child versions of otherwise adult things, and miscellaneous derivations. Some non-Irathient sentient beings will also be in this class.

Class XV is a mixed agreement class: the noun marking looks like Class III, but the agreement pattern is Class II.

Examples(sg/pl): tishuma/tishumi human being, timaina/timaini babe (Irathient), tishona/tishoni dude, man (Irathient), tiwo/tiwalə infant, baby, cub (any species), twinya/twinyahə pet name for one's Irathient daughter.

Class XVI: Tvung Nǝtigyekpe (The Hill Class)

Nominal class prefix: t-/ti-	Agentive prefix: n-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -e/-u	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): {e/ei}n-/un-
Copy consonant: n	Intransitive prefix: n-
Agreement prefix: n-/nu-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: nuna	3pl Pronoun: nune
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -na/-ni	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ne/-nu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lina/lini	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): line/linu

Class XVI is primarily for diminutive or slang versions of non-sentient beings and other objects. It is also used to refer to parts of larger objects.

Class XVI is a mixed agreement class. The noun marking is like Class III, but the agreement pattern is Class XI.

Examples(sg/pl): tigyekpe/tigyekpu hill, tihoshe/tihoshu spark, telige/teligu nap, tindur/tindurə pebble, tingma/tingmanə a short trip, a day trip.

Class XVII: Tvung Nǝgyanawe (The Hero Class)

Nominal class prefix: gyan-/gya-/Ø-/gy-	Agentive prefix: h-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -a/-i	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): ah-/ih-
Copy consonant: h	Intransitive prefix: h-
Agreement prefix: h-/ha-	Adjectival modifier: ə-
3sg Pronoun: iha	3pl Pronoun: uhe
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ha/-hi	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -he/-hu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): paha/pahi	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): pahe/pahu

Class XVII is for sentient augmentatives, as well as borrowings that don't fit anywhere else. The gya- and gyan- prefixes are only added to monosyllabic roots. Other words take no prefix at all.

This is also the class for first names. Although the name may be in another noun class, agreement will be for class XVII.

Class XVII is a mixed agreement class. The noun marking is unique, but the agreement pattern is Class II.

Examples(sg/pl): gyarisha/gyarishi leader or chief of an Irathient village, gyamaina/gyamaini Irathient elder (female), gyashona/gyashoni Irathient elder (male), gyano/gyanawə hero (or otherwise exceptional individual), lokipa/lokipahə lawkeeper.

Class XVIII: Tvung Nǝgyase (The Flood Class)

Nominal class prefix: gyan-/gya-/Ø-	Agentive prefix: n-
Nominal class suffix (sg/pl): -e/-u	Patientive Prefix (dir/caus): {e/ei}n-/un-
Copy consonant: n	Intransitive prefix: n-
Agreement prefix: n-/nu-	Adjectival modifier: ə-/ən-
3sg Pronoun: nuna	3pl Pronoun: nune
3sg Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -na/-ni	3pl Possessive suffix (sg/pl): -ne/-nu
3sg Possessive adjective (sg/pl): lina/lini	3pl Possessive adjective (sg/pl): line/linu

Class XVIII is for non-sentient augmentatives, and borrowed nouns that don't go anywhere else.

Class XVIII is a mixed agreement class. The noun marking is unique, but the agreement pattern is Class XI.

Examples(sg/pl): gyase/gyasu flood, gyahoshe/gyahoshu lightning storm, raifo/raifalə rifle (Earth weapon), urth/urthə Earth, kaivu/kaivunə metropolis.

Noun Inflection

	zrathe Irathient	sasi hot water	ekaru knife	iratha Irathi	nugyith tower
Singular, unpossessed	zrathe	sasi	ekaru	iratha	nugyith
Plural, unpossessed	zrathu	sasa	ekare	irathi	nugyithə
Singular, possessed	zrathəbe	sazbe	ekarbe	irathəbe	nugyithəbe
Plural, possessed	zrathəbu	sazbu	ekarbu	irathəbu	nugyithəbu
Singular, genitive (alienable)	pazrathe	pasasi	pekaru	piratha	panugyith
Plural, genitive (alienable)	pazrathu	pasasa	pekare	pirathi	panugyithə
Singular, genitive (inalienable)	lizrathe	lisasi	lekaru	liratha	linugyith
Plural, genitive (inalienable)	lizrathu	lisasa	lekare	lirathi	linugyithə

The possessed examples are given with the first person plural suffix -be. Notice that the possessive suffix evicts the class vowel of the noun, and the plural marking switches to the possessive suffix. The opposite quadrangle vowel of the suffix marks the plural, so -be singular and -bu plural.

Noun Derivation

	-V (ekaru "knife")	-C (nugyith "tower")
Adverb/Similitive -(n)áiCə	ekarunáikə	nugyitháinə
Without/Abessive -(ə)ziri	ekaruziri	nugyithəziri
With/Full/-ful -(ə)ngabe	ekarungabe	nugyithəngabe
Locative -(e)ri	ekaruri	nugyitheri

In the adverb form -(n)aiCə C stands for the the copy consonant of the noun class it belongs to. It has a range of uses:

Same laba enumbə kagnominaikə

same

but

l-ab-a

2SG-1PL-TR.PRES

en-umb-ə

ACT-cage-ACT

ka-gnom-i-naikə

IV-beast-IV.SG-ADV

same l-ab-a en-umb-ə ka-gnom-i-naikə

but 2SG-1PL-TR.PRES ACT-cage-ACT IV-beast-IV.SG-ADV

But you cage us like beasts. (S1E9)

Lememein anihə spaskunaizə thessume, Rin.

l-em-emein

2SG-1SG-EXP.TR.PFV.NEG

a-nih-ə

ACT-take-ACT

z-pasku-naizə

I-gossip-ADV

thessume,

never,

Rin

Rynn

l-em-emein a-nih-ə z-pasku-naizə thessume, Rin

2SG-1SG-EXP.TR.PFV.NEG ACT-take-ACT I-gossip-ADV never, Rynn

Never took you for a gossip, Rynn. (S1E12)

The absessive and "with" derivations may be used predicatively: tishinka thetungabe the Little Wolf has the sight, thetuziri ume I lack the sight (S1E4).

The locative suffix follows possessive suffixes,

Aréme éssu rísa zlugméri.

Ar-eme

IX.PAT-INTR.PRES

e-ssu

ACT-flow

risa

water

zluge-me-ri

brother-1SG.POSS-LOC

Ar-eme e-ssu risa zluge-me-ri

IX.PAT-INTR.PRES ACT-flow water brother-1SG.POSS-LOC

The water in my brother does not flow. (S1E12)

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

	Nominal Form	Verbal Form (agt/pat)	Possessive Form (sg/pl)	Possessive Adjective	Jussive
I (1sg)	ume	m- / -{e/u}m	-me / -mu	pume / lime	m(e)-
You (2sg)	ila	l- / -{a/i}l	-la / -li	pila / lila	(none)
S/he/it (3sg)	(i)*a	(see Noun Classes)	-*a / -*i	p(a)*a / l(i)*a	(i)*(a)-
We (1pl)	ibi	b- / -{a/i}b	-be / -bu	pibi / libi	b(e)-
You (2pl)	wi	w- / -{a/i}w	-we / -vu	pwigyi / lwigyi	(none)
They (3pl)	(u)*e	(see Noun Classes)	-*e / -*u	p(a)*e / l(i)*e	(u)*(e)-

In the third person forms, the asterisk represents the consonant supplied by the correct noun class. These forms can be found in the noun class charts.

Possessive Suffixes and Number Marking

When a possessive suffix is added to a noun, the vowel of the suffix becomes the site for plural marking. As seen in the noun inflection chart, when ekaru knife takes the 1pl suffix -be the original class vowel is deleted, giving ekarbe. In the plural, this is ekarbu.

The 2pl suffix, -we will become -vu in the plural, by normal Irathient phonetic rules, as in egyonggúrvu your guns.

Deixis

Irathient demonstratives make a three way distinction: near and visible, far and visible, and not visible. They agree with the class of the noun. The interrogative pronoun, which, patterns with the demonstratives.

The attributive demonstrative forms are:

Close and visible	Class agreement prefix + igy + ə
Far and visible	Class agreement prefix + al + ə
Not visible	Class agreement prefix + en + ə
Interrogative	Class agreement prefix + az + ə

The attributive demonstratives may come either before or after the noun, but cannot be the last element in a noun phrase.

• nigyǝ nugyekpe this mountain
• nalǝ nugyekpe that mountain
• nenǝ nugyekpe that mountain (behind me)
• nazǝ nugyekpe which mountain?

• nigyǝ nugyekpu these mountains
• nalǝ nugyekpu those mountains
• nenǝ nugyekpu those mountains (behind me)
• nazǝ nugyekpu which mountain?

• nigyǝ nugyekpǝ nuvune this black mountain
• nalǝ nugyekpǝ nuvune that black mountain
• nenǝ nugyekpǝ nuvune that black mountain (behind me)
• nazǝ nugyekpǝ nuvune which black mountain?

• nugyekpǝ nigyǝ nuvune this black mountain
• nugyekpǝ nalǝ nuvune that black mountain
• nugyekpǝ nenǝ nuvune that black mountain (behind me)
• nugyekpǝ nazǝ nuvune which black mountain?

If the noun is possessed, the demonstrative must come before the noun:

• nigyǝ nugyekpǝme this mountain of mine
• nigyǝ nugyekpǝmǝ nuvune this black mountain of mine

If the demonstratives are used as pronouns (not modifying a noun), they take these forms:

Close and visible	Class agreement prefix + igy + -a / -i
Far and visible	Class agreement prefix + al + -i / -a
Not visible	Class agreement prefix + en + -u / -e
Interrogative	Class agreement prefix + az + -i / -a

Zuhibe gyi nenu.

zu-hib-e

I-correct-SG

gyi

about

n-en-u

XVIII-DEM.INVIS-SG

zu-hib-e gyi n-en-u

I-correct-SG about XVIII-DEM.INVIS-SG

Right about that. (S1E4)

Pume nenu me.

p-ume

ALIEN-1SG

n-en-u

XVIII-DEM.INVIS-SG

me

not

p-ume n-en-u me

ALIEN-1SG XVIII-DEM.INVIS-SG not

That's not my doing. (S1E9)

Zwenu ibi me.

zw-en-u

I-DEM.INVIS-PL

ibi

1PL

me

not

zw-en-u ibi me

I-DEM.INVIS-PL 1PL not

We're not (that). (S1E12)

Verbs

Irathient verbs are formed by combining a kernel auxiliary and a shell lexical verb form. Using the verb sheligu sleep in the second person singular as an example, the combinations are:

• Imperative: present + imperative (alegnə) elíg sleep! The kernel verb is usally omitted.
• Present Imperfect: present + active alegnə eneligə you sleep.
• Future: present + infinitive alegnə sheligu you will sleep.
• Past Imperfect: imperfect + active alugnə eneligə you were sleeping.
• Conditional: imperfect + infinitive alugnə sheligu you would sleep or if you sleep...
• Perfect: perfect + active alegnis eneligə you slept.
• Immediate Future: perfect + infinitive alegnis sheligu you're about to sleep.
• Pluperfect: pluperfect + active alugnis eneligə you had slept or you had been sleeping.
• Past Conditional: pluperfect + infinitive alugnis sheligu you would have slept, you were about to sleep, or if you slept.

Kernel

The kernel verbs are six auxiliaries that have lost their original meanings, and now only indicate argument structure, valency, and the arguments of the verb.

Class I and II prefixes are used in the table below as examples.

	Polarity	Infinitive	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect
A. Intransitive (Agent/Patient)	(+)	shegnu	ezegnə	ezugnə	ezegnis	ezugnis
	(-)	(none)	ezeme	ezume	ezemein	ezumein
B. Transitive (Agent, Patient)	(+)	shon	zaha	zahi	zahon	zahin
	(-)	(none)	zahama	zahima	zahamin	zahimin
C. Transitive (Source, Experiencer)	(+)	shek	zahak	zahik	zahakeri	zahikeri
	(-)	(none)	zaheme	zahume	zahemein	zahumein
D. Transitive (Agent, Goal)	(+)	shein	zahé	zahú	zahéin	zahún
	(-)	(none)	zahama	zahima	zahamin	zahimin
E. Ditransitive (Agent, Patient)	(+)	shegyin	zahagyi	zahigyi	zahagyiwa	zahigyiwa
	(-)	(none)	zahama	zahima	zahamin	zahimin
F. Performative (Agent, Goal)	(+)	shalu	zahala	zahili	zahon	zahun
	(-)	(none)	zahama	zahima	zahamin	zahimin

A. Shegnu

This kernel is used for intransitives, and takes the patientive prefix.

Ezegnə esuktə.

ez-egnə

I.PAT-INTR

e-sukt-ə

ACT-flee-ACT

ez-egnə e-sukt-ə

I.PAT-INTR ACT-flee-ACT

She's fleeing. (S1E4)

Ememe shesuktu.

em-eme

1SG.PAT-INTR.NEG

she-sukt-u

XIV-flee-XIV

em-eme she-sukt-u

1SG.PAT-INTR.NEG XIV-flee-XIV

I will not run. (S1E9)

Shell

The shell verb is the content portion of the kernal+shell verb combination.

Shetu see, shrazu drink, sheligu sleep, shingma travel, shergyu be inside.

	Infinitive	Active	Passive	Imperative	Fronted
C...V	shetu	etu	utu	ətú	tuhe
C...C	shrazu	arazə	irazə	əráz	rasha
V...C	sheligu	eneligə	uneligə	elíg	elihe
V...V	shingma	aningma	iningma	ingmá	ingmaha
C...C	shergyu	argyə	irgyə	ərgyá	r(ə)sha

Infinitive

The class prefix is always she- if the root is a monosyllable ending in a vowel. It will only be sh- (without the vowel), for stems that start in l, r, or w.

The infinitive can be used as a gerund ("running is healthy, to run is healthy"). It is also used with kernel verbs to form futures and conditionals.

Active and Passive

The active is a finite (but otherwise non-distinct) form of the verb. It might be rendered by "eats", but even that is more specific than the active form of an Irathient shell verb.

The passive is more an impersonal, and can be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs. When used, the patient is promoted to the subject, with agent omitted, introduced with tha, or fronted in conjunction with the fronting suffix.

The final -ə in consonant-final roots is optional, and is often dropped if the following word starts with a vowel.

Imperative

The ə(n)- prefix to the imperative only happens to monosyllabic roots or roots ending in -ə.

Fronted

The fronting suffix causes spirantization of some root-final consonants:

• *bh *ph *kh *gh *hh > h
• *th *dh *tth > th
• *sh *ssh *gyh > sh

Illegal consonant clusters are resolved with ə, such as rəsha in the table.

This form signals that a nominal argument has been moved in front of the shell verb, something that otherwise cannot happen. This forms a number of constructions: passive, antipassive, causative, and applicative. The fronted suffix can go on the infinitive, active, passive, or imperative.