Væyne Zaanics Grammar: Difference between revisions

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{{LangBar|Væyne Zaanics}}
{{LangBar|Væyne Zaanics}}
{{stub}}
'''Væyne Zaanics''' is an inflected a priori language, with both fusional and agglutinative features and both head-initial and head-final features. It is a constructed language both in universe and out of universe, and has a fairly regular morphosyntax.
'''Væyne Zaanics''' is an inflected a priori language, with both fusional and agglutinative features and both head-initial and head-final features. It is a constructed language both in-universe and out-of-universe, and has a fairly regular morphosyntax.


==Epenthesis and elision==
==Epenthesis and elision==
An important, pervasive rule of Væyne Zaanics is that an epenthetic '''n''' is always added before a vowel-initial suffix when it is added to an approximant-final stem. This rule applies to every part of speech.
An important, pervasive rule of Væyne Zaanics is that an epenthetic '''n''' is always added before a vowel-initial suffix when it is added to an approximant-final stem. This rule applies to every part of speech.


Another important rule is that when a vowel-initial suffix is added to a vowel-final stem, the suffix's initial vowel is deleted, and when a vowel-final prefix is added to a vowel-initial stem, the prefix's final vowel is deleted.
Another important rule is that when a vowel-initial derivational suffix is added to a vowel-final stem, the suffix's initial vowel is deleted, and when a vowel-final derivational prefix is added to a vowel-initial stem, the prefix's final vowel is deleted.
 
==Syntax==
Væyne Zaanics is a primarily subject-object-verb language. Wh-words are placed sentence-initially, adjectives and determiners precede nouns, and possessors and relative clauses follow nouns.


==Nouns==
==Nouns==
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The following table contains two examples of nouns from the same, vowel-final root ''[[tiri]]'', the light ''[[tiriveh]]'' (dove) and the dark ''[[tirivoh]]'' (pigeon). Their declension patterns differ from the other stems' in that '''v''' is added between the stem and the suffixes, the ablative forms have shorter suffixes and the vocative ones lack suffixes.
The following table contains two examples of nouns from the same, vowel-final root ''[[tiri]]'', the light ''[[tiriveh]]'' (dove) and the dark ''[[tirivoh]]'' (pigeon). Their declension patterns differ from the other stems' in that '''v''' is added between the stem and the suffixes, the ablative forms have shorter suffixes and the vocative ones lack suffixes:
{| class="wikitable<!-- mw-collapsible-->"
{| class="wikitable<!-- mw-collapsible-->"
! rowspan="2" style="width:100px; background-color: #00E8FF"|  
! rowspan="2" style="width:100px; background-color: #00E8FF"|  
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|}
|}


Furthermore, each pronoun has a corresponding proclitic, which may be used instead of the full pronoun to mark a subject, and a corresponding enclitic, which may be used instead of the full pronoun to mark a direct object:
Furthermore, each pronoun has a corresponding proclitic, which may be used instead of the full pronoun to mark a subject of a non-imperative verb, and a corresponding enclitic, which may be used instead of the full pronoun to mark a direct object or the subject of an imperative verb:


{| class="wikitable<!-- mw-collapsible-->"
{| class="wikitable<!-- mw-collapsible-->"
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|}
|}


The full pronouns are usually used to emphasize arguments whereas the clitics are used to deemphasize them. Third-person clitics may be used to refer to nonspecific arguments in order to create the rough equivalent of a passive or antipassive construction.
The full pronouns are usually used to emphasize arguments whereas the clitics are used to deemphasize them. Third-person clitics may be used to refer to nonspecific arguments in order to create the rough equivalent of a passive or antipassive construction, as Væyne Zaanics lacks a true passive or antipassive. The proclitics' vowels are deleted when they are added to vowel-initial stems.


==Prepositions==
==Prepositions==
Væyne Zaanics is exclusively prepositional, prepositions co-occur with the dative, the locative or the ablative, the cases they assign are lexically determined. Some prepositions have different meanings depending on the cases they co-occur with, for instance ''[[geen]]'' is a comitative "with" when followed by the dative but an instrumental "with" when followed by the ablative.
Væyne Zaanics is exclusively prepositional, prepositions co-occur with the dative, the locative or the ablative, the cases they assign are lexically determined. Some prepositions have different meanings depending on the cases they co-occur with, for instance ''[[geen]]'' is a comitative "with" when followed by the dative but an instrumental "with" when followed by the ablative.
Some prepositions double as subordinating conjunctions when their complement is an infinitive.


==Adjectives==
==Adjectives==
Adjectives have a short form and a long one, the short forms are used attributively and agree in case and number with the nouns, while the long forms are used predicatively and agree in case, number and class with the nouns. The long forms may also be used as nouns referring to entities having the relevant quality.
Adjectives have a short form and a long one, the short forms are used attributively and agree in case and number with the nouns, while the long forms are used predicatively and agree in case, number and class with the nouns. The long forms may also be used as nouns referring to entities having the relevant quality.


The short forms have a limited set of inflections, which is the same for consonant-final and vowel-final stems apart from the '''n''' which is added between a vowel-final stem and its suffix. The following table contains two examples of adjectives from the same, consonant-final root ''[[cap]]'', the light ''[[cape]]'' (high) and the dark ''[[capo]]'' (low).
The short forms have a limited set of inflections, which is the same for consonant-final and vowel-final stems apart from the '''n''' which is added between a vowel-final stem and its suffix. The following table contains two examples of adjectives from the same, consonant-final root ''[[cap]]'', the light ''[[cape]]'' (high) and the dark ''[[capo]]'' (low):


{| class="wikitable<!-- mw-collapsible-->"
{| class="wikitable<!-- mw-collapsible-->"
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|}
|}


Interestingly, because of the pervasive vowel reduction of Væyne Zaanics, most of the forms are homophonous and only distinguished in writing, for instance ''[[cape]]'' and ''[[capo]]'' are both pronounced /ˈkɑpə/ even though they are antonyms, only context can help tell them apart when they are spoken aloud.
Interestingly, because of the pervasive vowel reduction of Væyne Zaanics, most of the forms are homophonous and only distinguishable in writing, for instance ''[[cape]]'' and ''[[capo]]'' are both pronounced /ˈkɑpə/ even though they are antonyms, only context can help tell them apart when they are spoken aloud.


The long forms are obtained by adding '''h''' to the short forms and using a declension pattern nearly identical to the consonant-final noun stems', the only difference is that the shorter ablative suffix from the vowel-final noun stems' pattern is used. However, the short forms' inflections are also kept, so the plural of ''capeheh'' is ''cap'''i'''h'''i''''', not just ''cap'''e'''h'''i'''''. Here is the full paradigm of the long form of ''[[cape]]'':
The long forms are obtained by adding '''h''' to the short forms and using a declension pattern nearly identical to the consonant-final noun stems', the only difference is that the shorter ablative suffix from the vowel-final noun stems' pattern is used. However, the short forms' inflections are also kept, so the plural of ''capeheh'' is ''cap'''i'''h'''i''''', not just *''cap'''e'''h'''i'''''. Here is the full paradigm of the long form of ''[[cape]]'':


{| class="wikitable<!-- mw-collapsible-->"
{| class="wikitable<!-- mw-collapsible-->"
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:''[[Hiþ]]'' (I) → ''[[hiþe|hiþ]]<u>[[hiþe|e]]</u>'' (my)
:''[[Hiþ]]'' (I) → ''[[hiþe|hiþ]]<u>[[hiþe|e]]</u>'' (my)


Adjectives may be turned into nouns denoting qualities by adding -'''v'''- to the short form. The resulting stem is invariant, unlike the long forms' stems, so the plural of ''[[capeveh]]'' is ''cap'''e'''v'''i''''', not ''cap'''i'''v'''i''''':
Adjectives may be turned into nouns denoting qualities by adding -'''v'''- to the short form. The resulting stem is invariant, unlike the long forms' stems, so the plural of ''[[capeveh]]'' is ''cap'''e'''v'''i''''', not *''cap'''i'''v'''i''''':
:''[[Cape]]'' (high) → ''[[capeveh|cape]]<u>[[capeveh|v]]</u>[[capeveh|eh]]'' (highness)
:''[[Cape]]'' (high) → ''[[capeveh|cape]]<u>[[capeveh|v]]</u>[[capeveh|eh]]'' (highness)


Light causative verbs are obtained by adding '''ye'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding '''yo'''-.
Light causative verbs are obtained by adding '''ye'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding '''yo'''-:
:''[[Cape]]'' (high) → ''<u>[[yecapeneh|ye]]</u>[[yecapeneh|capeneh]]'' (raise)
:''[[Cape]]'' (high) → ''<u>[[yecapeneh|ye]]</u>[[yecapeneh|capeneh]]'' (raise)


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==Determiners==
==Determiners==
Determiners do not agree with nouns. They may be turned into pronouns simply by adding noun endings to their stems, although the stems of ''[[ægher]]'' and ''[[izir]]'' are shortened into ''æghr''- and ''izr''- when this happens.
Determiners do not agree with nouns. They may be turned into pronouns simply by adding nominal endings to their stems, although the stems of ''[[ægher]]'' and ''[[izir]]'' are shortened into ''æghr''- and ''izr''- when this happens.
{| class="wikitable<!-- mw-collapsible-->"
{| class="wikitable<!-- mw-collapsible-->"
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #CE9900;" |
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #CE9900;" |
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| cor'''noh'''
| cor'''noh'''
|}
|}
The pronominal forms of ''[[jur]]'' serve both as wh-words and relative pronouns.
==Adverbs==
Væyne Zaanics has few true adverbs, most manner adverbs are actually adjectives nominalized with -'''v'''- in the locative or the ablative, for instance "highly" would be ''capeves'' or ''capevæælæ'', which are both forms of ''[[capeveh]]''.
An important true adverb is ''[[cor]]'', which is added at the end of a sentence to negate it:
:'''Soraþenaw''' (you take it) → '''soraþenaw cor''' (you do not take it)
==Numerals==
Cardinal numerals behave like determiners, while ordinals are obtained simply by adding adjectival endings to the cardinals' stems and behave like adjectives, for instance "one" is ''[[sep]]'' and "first" is ''[[sepe]]''.


==Verbs==
==Verbs==
Verbs are conjugated for tense, and have finite, infinitive and participle forms, and like nouns fall into two main conjugation classes: 'light' and 'dark'. They do not display (mandatory) agreement with their dependents (i.e. the subject and object), but can have marking of them. Pronominal subjects and objects can be marked on verbs by affixing clitic forms of pronouns to the verb when there is no overt, nominal subject/object in the clause.  
Verbs do not agree with anything (except with their subjects in the imperative) but can take subject and object clitics and are conjugated for tense, aspect and mood, have finite, infinitive and participle forms, and fall into two main conjugation classes, like the other parts of speech: light and dark.
 
Tense is marked by suffixes and circumfixes, '''n''' is added between a vowel-final stem and the finite forms' suffixes, and the prefixes' vowels are deleted before vowel-initial stems. Væyne Zaanics distinguishes 12 tense-aspect-mood combinations:
# The '''present''' for current or habitual events,
# The '''past''' for completed events,
# The '''future''' for upcoming events,
# The '''present progressive''' for ongoing events,
# The '''past progressive''' for events that were in the middle of happening,
# The '''future progressive''' for upcoming events that will go on,
# The '''present perfect''' for completed events which are relevant in the present,
# The '''pluperfect''' for events that were already completed before a given point in the past,
# The '''future perfect''' for events that will already be completed before a given point in the future,
# The '''immediate future''' for events that are about to happen,
# The '''conditional''' for events that would happen if specific conditions were met,
# The '''future intentional''' for events the subject wants to happen.
 
The following table contains the finite forms of two verbs from the same, consonant-final root ''[[raþ]]'', the light ''[[raþeneh]]'' (take) and the dark ''[[raþonoh]]'' (steal):
{| class="wikitable<!-- mw-collapsible-->"
! rowspan="1" style="width:160px; background-color: #95DF54"|
! colspan="1" style="text-align: center; rowspan="1"; style="background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | Light
! colspan="1" style="text-align: center; rowspan="1"; style="background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | Dark
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | '''Present'''
| style="text-align: center;" | raþ'''en'''
| style="text-align: center;" | raþ'''on'''
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | '''Past'''
| style="text-align: center;" | raþ'''æj'''
| style="text-align: center;" | raþ'''aj'''
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | '''Future'''
| style="text-align: center;" | raþ'''il'''
| style="text-align: center;" | raþ'''ul'''
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | '''Present Progressive'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''ne'''raþ'''en'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''no'''raþ'''on'''
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | '''Past Progressive'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''ne'''raþ'''æj'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''no'''raþ'''aj'''
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | '''Future Progressive'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''ne'''raþ'''il'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''no'''raþ'''ul'''
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | '''Present Perfect'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''jæ'''raþ'''en'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''ja'''raþ'''on'''
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | '''Pluperfect'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''jæ'''raþ'''æj'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''ja'''raþ'''aj'''
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | '''Future Perfect'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''jæ'''raþ'''il'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''ja'''raþ'''ul'''
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | '''Immediate Future'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''li'''raþ'''en'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''lu'''raþ'''on'''
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | '''Conditional'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''li'''raþ'''æj'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''lu'''raþ'''aj'''
|-
| style="text-align: center; background-color:#006F01;color:white;" | '''Future Intentional'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''li'''raþ'''il'''
| style="text-align: center;" | '''lu'''raþ'''ul'''
|}
 
Furthermore, imperative forms are obtained by adding a personal enclitic (even if an overt subject is present) to any finite form and stressing it, for instance ''raþen'''os''''' translates as the command "take" to one person, while ''raþen'''ast''''' translates as the wish "let them take".
 
In the imperative, both the subject and the pronominal object (if there is one) are marked by enclitics, for example "take it" is ''raþen'''osaw'''''. Otherwise, the pronominal subject (if there is one) and the pronominal object (if there is one) are marked by proclitics and enclitics respectively, for instance "you take it" is '''''so'''raþen'''aw'''''.
 
Infinitives are obtained by adding nominal endings to any finite form while participles are obtained by adding adjectival ones, it is even possible to include subject and object clitics into an infinitive, the nominal endings follow the object clitics when this happens, for instance '''''so'''raþen'''aw''''' (you take it) may be turned into the infinitive '''''so'''raþen'''awneh''''' (your taking it). When the stem is vowel-final, the epenthetic '''n''' is removed and the tense suffix's first vowel is instead elided before the nonfinite forms' endings are added, so for example, ''angu'''næj''''' (flew) is turned into the participle ''angu'''je''''' (that flew), not *''angu'''næjeh'''''. Light noun and adjective endings are used for verbs of the light class, and dark noun and adjective endings are used for verbs of the dark class.


===Object marking on verbs===
As infinitives inflect like nouns, they allow the use of a nonfinite clause as a verb's argument or a preposition's complement.
Væyne Zaanics features head-marking on its verbs, in the form of object marking. Object ''marking'' differs from object ''agreement''. In agreement, the morphological markers must appear whether or not the clause contains a standalone object. This is not the case in Væyne Zaanics, where the object is marked on the verb only when the clause lacks a standalone object. An illustration of this can be observed by contrasting the two examples below:


{{fs interlinear|number=1|lang=vzaa
===Derivation===
|top={{vzaa-orth-huge|form=drega mufuuþil.}}
The vowels of some of the verbs' derivational prefixes are deleted before some consonants, such as approximants.
|'''Drega''' '''mufuuþil.'''
 
|dreg-a mu-fuuþ-il
Light fortative verbs are obtained by adding '''cæ'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding '''ca'''-:
|book-DRK.ACC.SG DRK.1PL.SBJ-discuss-FUT
:''[[Fuuþonoh]]'' (argue) → ''<u>[[Cafuuþonoh|ca]]</u>[[Cafuuþonoh|fuuþonoh]]'' (fight)
|We will discuss the book.}}
 
Light inchoative or inceptive verbs are obtained by adding '''bi'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding '''bu'''-:
:''[[Memeneh]]'' (know) → ''<u>[[Bimemeneh|bi]]</u>[[Bimemeneh|memeneh]]'' (recognize)
 
Light causative verbs are obtained by adding '''ye'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding '''yo'''-:
:''[[Jelnonoh]]'' (eat) → ''<u>[[yojelnonoh|yo]]</u>[[yojelnonoh|jelnonoh]]'' (feed)
 
Light nouns denoting associated objects are obtained by adding -'''ecs'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -'''ocs'''-:
:''[[Tosonoh]]'' (see) → ''[[Tosocsoh|tos]]<u>[[Tosocsoh|ocs]]</u>[[Tosocsoh|oh]]'' (vision)
 
Light resultative nouns are obtained by adding -'''iþ'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -'''uþ'''-:
:''[[Gocheneh]]'' (unite) → ''[[Gochiþeh|goch]]<u>[[Gochiþeh|iþ]]</u>[[Gochiþeh|eh]]'' (unity)
 
Light reversive verbs are obtained by adding '''wæ'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding '''wa'''-.
 
Light repetitive verbs are obtained by adding '''si'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding '''su'''-.
 
Light nouns denoting associated agents are obtained by adding -'''æpr'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -'''apr'''-.
 
Light nouns denoting instruments are obtained by adding -'''æpræc'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -'''aprac'''-.
 
Light nouns denoting animate objects are obtained by adding -'''ecsec'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -'''ocsoc'''-.
 
Light nouns denoting associated places are obtained by adding -'''dææn'''- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -'''daan'''-. If adding these suffixes results in a prohibited cluster, the '''d''' is deleted.


In the example above, there is a direct object present, {{m|vzaa|drega||book}}, and no marking of the object on the verb.
==Yes-no questions==
A statement may be turned into a question by adding ''[[jur]]'' at the beginning:
:'''Soraþenaw''' (you take it) → '''jur soraþenaw?''' (do you take it?)


{{fs interlinear|number=2|lang=vzaa
''[[Ter]]'' is used to give a positive answer to a positive question, ''[[izir]]'' is used to give a positive answer to a negative question, and ''[[cor]]'' is used to give a negative answer to a positive or negative question:
|top={{vzaa-orth-huge|form=Mufuuþilaw.}}
:'''Jur soraþenaw?''' (do you take it?) → '''ter''' (yes, I do) / '''cor''' (no, I do not)
|'''Mufuuþilaw.'''
:'''Jur soraþenaw cor?''' (do you not take it?) → '''izir''' (yes, I do) / '''cor''' (no, I do not)
|mu-fuuþ-il-aw
|DRK.1PL.SBJ-discuss-FUT-DRK.3SG.OBJ
|We will discuss it.}}


On the contrary, the {{m|vzaa|-aw||it, her, him}} suffix appears in this second example, and any overt object is absent{{AOLIref|page=172}}.
==Relative clauses==
Væyne Zaanics uses the same relativization strategy as Latin, the pronominal forms of ''[[jur]]'' serve as a relative pronoun, which agrees in class and number with the noun it relativizes and whose case depends on its role in the embedded clause:
:'''Vaneh tiriva cafuuþon''' (the eagle fights the pigeon)
:→ '''Vaneh <u>jurneh</u> tiriva cafuuþon''' (the eagle <u>that</u> fights the pigeon)
:→ '''Tirivoh <u>jurna</u> Vaneh cafuuþon''' (the pigeon <u>that</u> the eagle fights)


==References==
When the relative pronoun is in the genitive and relativizes a possessor, the possessee may either precede or follow the relative pronoun, it is the only case where a possessor may precede a possessee:
<references/>
:'''<u>Awnoh</u> vanec tiriva cafuuþon''' (the eagle's <u>father</u> fights the pigeon)
:→ '''Vaneh <u>awnoh jurnec</u> tiriva cafuuþon''' (the eagle <u>whose father</u> fights the pigeon)
:→ '''Vaneh <u>jurnec awnoh</u> tiriva cafuuþon''' (the eagle <u>whose father</u> fights the pigeon)


[[Category:Væyne Zaanics language|Grammar]][[Category:Grammar pages]]
[[Category:Væyne Zaanics language|Grammar]][[Category:Grammar pages]]

Latest revision as of 23:13, 25 September 2024

Væyne Zaanics Language Navigation: Home, Phonology, Grammar, Vocabulary, Orthography

Væyne Zaanics is an inflected a priori language, with both fusional and agglutinative features and both head-initial and head-final features. It is a constructed language both in universe and out of universe, and has a fairly regular morphosyntax.

Epenthesis and elision

An important, pervasive rule of Væyne Zaanics is that an epenthetic n is always added before a vowel-initial suffix when it is added to an approximant-final stem. This rule applies to every part of speech.

Another important rule is that when a vowel-initial derivational suffix is added to a vowel-final stem, the suffix's initial vowel is deleted, and when a vowel-final derivational prefix is added to a vowel-initial stem, the prefix's final vowel is deleted.

Syntax

Væyne Zaanics is a primarily subject-object-verb language. Wh-words are placed sentence-initially, adjectives and determiners precede nouns, and possessors and relative clauses follow nouns.

Nouns

Nouns are declined by case and number, and belong to one of two main declension classes: light and dark. Furthermore, each class has a declension pattern used with consonant-final stems and another used with vowel-final ones. A noun's class can easily be guessed from the final of the nominative singular form, as light nouns always end with eh while dark ones always end with oh.

As the creators of Væyne Zaanics were influenced by Latin, the two languages both distinguish two numbers, singular and plural, and have the same cases, which have similar uses:

  1. The nominative co-occurs with subjects,
  2. The accusative co-occurs with direct objects and agents of causative verbs,
  3. The genitive co-occurs with possessors and objects of causative verbs,
  4. The dative co-occurs with indirect objects, goals, beneficiaries and some prepositions,
  5. The locative co-occurs with locations and some prepositions,
  6. The ablative co-occurs with sources and some prepositions,
  7. The vocative is used for direct address. Unlike the other cases, which are marked by suffixes, the vocative is marked by a prefix on vowel-final stems and by a circumfix on the others. Furthermore, n is added between the vocative forms' prefixes and vowel-initial stems.

The following table contains two examples of nouns from the same, consonant-final root van, the light vaneh (eagle) and the dark vanoh (vulture):

Light Dark
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative vaneh vani vanoh vanu
Accusative vanæ vane vana vano
Genitive vanec vanic vanoc vanuc
Dative vanær vaner vanar vanor
Locative vanes vanis vanos vanus
Ablative vanæælæ vaneele vanaala vanoolo
Vocative evane ivane ovano uvano

The following table contains two examples of nouns from the same, vowel-final root tiri, the light tiriveh (dove) and the dark tirivoh (pigeon). Their declension patterns differ from the other stems' in that v is added between the stem and the suffixes, the ablative forms have shorter suffixes and the vocative ones lack suffixes:

Light Dark
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative tiriveh tirivi tirivoh tirivu
Accusative tirivæ tirive tiriva tirivo
Genitive tirivec tirivic tirivoc tirivuc
Dative tirivær tiriver tirivar tirivor
Locative tirives tirivis tirivos tirivus
Ablative tirivæl tirivel tirival tirivol
Vocative etiri itiri otiri utiri

Derivation

Light diminutive nouns are obtained by adding -itch- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -utch-:

Dregoh (book) → dregutchoh (little book)

Light augmentative nouns are obtained by adding -æghr- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -aghr-:

Rifoh (poison) → rifaghroh (virus)

Light metonymic nouns are obtained by adding -ef- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -of-:

Yesuþoh (Yesuþoh script) → yesuþofoh (Yesuþoh letter)

Light similitive adjectives are obtained by adding -eght- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -oght-:

Celineh (intimidation) → celineghte (proud)

Light collective nouns are obtained by adding -æmp- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -amp-.

Light nouns denoting associated places are obtained by adding -dææn- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -daan-. If adding these suffixes results in a prohibited cluster, the d is deleted.

Pronouns

Like nouns, personal pronouns distinguish between light and dark, light first-person pronouns are only used to render the words of heavenly beings while light second-person pronouns are only used to address them, plural pronouns are used when God is the speaker or the addressee. To refer to mixed groups of light and dark nouns, dark pronouns are used.

Personal pronouns have their own declension patterns, which are very similar to the ones consonant-final stems use but lack suffixes in the nominative, several pronouns also have irregular stems in the vocative:

Singular Plural
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
Nominative Light hiþ sen væy vic cech ræst
Dark huþ son vaw mur coch last
Accusative Light hiþæ senæ væynæ vice ceche ræste
Dark huþa sona vawna murno cocho lasto
Genitive Light hiþec senec væynec vicic cechic ræstic
Dark huþoc sonoc vawnoc murnuc cochuc lastuc
Dative Light hiþær senær væynær vicer cecher ræster
Dark huþar sonar vawnar murnor cochor lastor
Locative Light hiþes senes væynes vicis cechis ræstis
Dark huþos sonos vawnos murnus cochus lastus
Ablative Light hiþæælæ senæælæ væynæælæ viceele cecheele ræsteele
Dark huþaala sonaala vawnaala murnoolo cochoolo lastoolo
Vocative Light eeþe esene evene ivice iceche iræse
Dark ooþo osono ovono umurno ucocho ulaso

Furthermore, each pronoun has a corresponding proclitic, which may be used instead of the full pronoun to mark a subject of a non-imperative verb, and a corresponding enclitic, which may be used instead of the full pronoun to mark a direct object or the subject of an imperative verb:

Proclitic Enclitic
hiþ hi- -ih
sen se- -es
væy væ- -æy
vic vi- -iv
cech ce- -ec
ræst ræ- -æst
huþ hu- -uh
son so- -os
vaw va- -aw
mur mu- -um
coch co- -oc
last la- -ast

The full pronouns are usually used to emphasize arguments whereas the clitics are used to deemphasize them. Third-person clitics may be used to refer to nonspecific arguments in order to create the rough equivalent of a passive or antipassive construction, as Væyne Zaanics lacks a true passive or antipassive. The proclitics' vowels are deleted when they are added to vowel-initial stems.

Prepositions

Væyne Zaanics is exclusively prepositional, prepositions co-occur with the dative, the locative or the ablative, the cases they assign are lexically determined. Some prepositions have different meanings depending on the cases they co-occur with, for instance geen is a comitative "with" when followed by the dative but an instrumental "with" when followed by the ablative.

Some prepositions double as subordinating conjunctions when their complement is an infinitive.

Adjectives

Adjectives have a short form and a long one, the short forms are used attributively and agree in case and number with the nouns, while the long forms are used predicatively and agree in case, number and class with the nouns. The long forms may also be used as nouns referring to entities having the relevant quality.

The short forms have a limited set of inflections, which is the same for consonant-final and vowel-final stems apart from the n which is added between a vowel-final stem and its suffix. The following table contains two examples of adjectives from the same, consonant-final root cap, the light cape (high) and the dark capo (low):

Light Dark
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative/Genitive/Locative/Vocative cape capi capo capu
Accusative/Dative/Ablative capæ cape capa capo

Interestingly, because of the pervasive vowel reduction of Væyne Zaanics, most of the forms are homophonous and only distinguishable in writing, for instance cape and capo are both pronounced /ˈkɑpə/ even though they are antonyms, only context can help tell them apart when they are spoken aloud.

The long forms are obtained by adding h to the short forms and using a declension pattern nearly identical to the consonant-final noun stems', the only difference is that the shorter ablative suffix from the vowel-final noun stems' pattern is used. However, the short forms' inflections are also kept, so the plural of capeheh is capihi, not just *capehi. Here is the full paradigm of the long form of cape:

Light Dark
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative capeheh capihi capehoh capihu
Accusative capæhæ capehe capæha capeho
Genitive capehec capihic capehoc capihuc
Dative capæhær capeher capæhar capehor
Locative capehes capihis capehos capihus
Ablative capæhæl capehel capæhal capehol
Vocative ecapehe icapehe ocapeho ucapeho

Derivation

Possessive adjectives may be obtained simply by adding adjectival endings to the personal pronouns' stems, they inflect exactly like regular adjectives:

Hiþ (I) → hiþe (my)

Adjectives may be turned into nouns denoting qualities by adding -v- to the short form. The resulting stem is invariant, unlike the long forms' stems, so the plural of capeveh is capevi, not *capivi:

Cape (high) → capeveh (highness)

Light causative verbs are obtained by adding ye- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding yo-:

Cape (high) → yecapeneh (raise)

Light comparative adjectives are obtained by adding -irs- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -urs-.

Light superlative adjectives are obtained by adding -ædz- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -adz-.

Light intensive adjectives are obtained by adding -ij- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -uj-.

Negative adjectives are obtained by adding -ocr- to the stem.

Comparison

In equative constructions, the adjective's standard form is used and the comparand is in the locative:

Cape lastus : as high as them

When comparative and superlative adjectives take a comparand, it takes the ablative:

Capirse lastoolo : higher than them
Capædze lastoolo : highest of them

Determiners

Determiners do not agree with nouns. They may be turned into pronouns simply by adding nominal endings to their stems, although the stems of ægher and izir are shortened into æghr- and izr- when this happens.

Attributive Pronominal
Light Dark
Proximal ter terneh ternoh
Medial for forneh fornoh
Distal ægher æghreh æghroh
Question/Relative jur jurneh jurnoh
Universal izir izreh izroh
Negative cor corneh cornoh

The pronominal forms of jur serve both as wh-words and relative pronouns.

Adverbs

Væyne Zaanics has few true adverbs, most manner adverbs are actually adjectives nominalized with -v- in the locative or the ablative, for instance "highly" would be capeves or capevæælæ, which are both forms of capeveh.

An important true adverb is cor, which is added at the end of a sentence to negate it:

Soraþenaw (you take it) → soraþenaw cor (you do not take it)

Numerals

Cardinal numerals behave like determiners, while ordinals are obtained simply by adding adjectival endings to the cardinals' stems and behave like adjectives, for instance "one" is sep and "first" is sepe.

Verbs

Verbs do not agree with anything (except with their subjects in the imperative) but can take subject and object clitics and are conjugated for tense, aspect and mood, have finite, infinitive and participle forms, and fall into two main conjugation classes, like the other parts of speech: light and dark.

Tense is marked by suffixes and circumfixes, n is added between a vowel-final stem and the finite forms' suffixes, and the prefixes' vowels are deleted before vowel-initial stems. Væyne Zaanics distinguishes 12 tense-aspect-mood combinations:

  1. The present for current or habitual events,
  2. The past for completed events,
  3. The future for upcoming events,
  4. The present progressive for ongoing events,
  5. The past progressive for events that were in the middle of happening,
  6. The future progressive for upcoming events that will go on,
  7. The present perfect for completed events which are relevant in the present,
  8. The pluperfect for events that were already completed before a given point in the past,
  9. The future perfect for events that will already be completed before a given point in the future,
  10. The immediate future for events that are about to happen,
  11. The conditional for events that would happen if specific conditions were met,
  12. The future intentional for events the subject wants to happen.

The following table contains the finite forms of two verbs from the same, consonant-final root raþ, the light raþeneh (take) and the dark raþonoh (steal):

Light Dark
Present raþen raþon
Past raþæj raþaj
Future raþil raþul
Present Progressive neraþen noraþon
Past Progressive neraþæj noraþaj
Future Progressive neraþil noraþul
Present Perfect jæraþen jaraþon
Pluperfect jæraþæj jaraþaj
Future Perfect jæraþil jaraþul
Immediate Future liraþen luraþon
Conditional liraþæj luraþaj
Future Intentional liraþil luraþul

Furthermore, imperative forms are obtained by adding a personal enclitic (even if an overt subject is present) to any finite form and stressing it, for instance raþenos translates as the command "take" to one person, while raþenast translates as the wish "let them take".

In the imperative, both the subject and the pronominal object (if there is one) are marked by enclitics, for example "take it" is raþenosaw. Otherwise, the pronominal subject (if there is one) and the pronominal object (if there is one) are marked by proclitics and enclitics respectively, for instance "you take it" is soraþenaw.

Infinitives are obtained by adding nominal endings to any finite form while participles are obtained by adding adjectival ones, it is even possible to include subject and object clitics into an infinitive, the nominal endings follow the object clitics when this happens, for instance soraþenaw (you take it) may be turned into the infinitive soraþenawneh (your taking it). When the stem is vowel-final, the epenthetic n is removed and the tense suffix's first vowel is instead elided before the nonfinite forms' endings are added, so for example, angunæj (flew) is turned into the participle anguje (that flew), not *angunæjeh. Light noun and adjective endings are used for verbs of the light class, and dark noun and adjective endings are used for verbs of the dark class.

As infinitives inflect like nouns, they allow the use of a nonfinite clause as a verb's argument or a preposition's complement.

Derivation

The vowels of some of the verbs' derivational prefixes are deleted before some consonants, such as approximants.

Light fortative verbs are obtained by adding cæ- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding ca-:

Fuuþonoh (argue) → cafuuþonoh (fight)

Light inchoative or inceptive verbs are obtained by adding bi- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding bu-:

Memeneh (know) → bimemeneh (recognize)

Light causative verbs are obtained by adding ye- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding yo-:

Jelnonoh (eat) → yojelnonoh (feed)

Light nouns denoting associated objects are obtained by adding -ecs- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -ocs-:

Tosonoh (see) → tosocsoh (vision)

Light resultative nouns are obtained by adding -iþ- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -uþ-:

Gocheneh (unite) → gochiþeh (unity)

Light reversive verbs are obtained by adding wæ- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding wa-.

Light repetitive verbs are obtained by adding si- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding su-.

Light nouns denoting associated agents are obtained by adding -æpr- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -apr-.

Light nouns denoting instruments are obtained by adding -æpræc- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -aprac-.

Light nouns denoting animate objects are obtained by adding -ecsec- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -ocsoc-.

Light nouns denoting associated places are obtained by adding -dææn- to the stem, while dark ones are obtained by adding -daan-. If adding these suffixes results in a prohibited cluster, the d is deleted.

Yes-no questions

A statement may be turned into a question by adding jur at the beginning:

Soraþenaw (you take it) → jur soraþenaw? (do you take it?)

Ter is used to give a positive answer to a positive question, izir is used to give a positive answer to a negative question, and cor is used to give a negative answer to a positive or negative question:

Jur soraþenaw? (do you take it?) → ter (yes, I do) / cor (no, I do not)
Jur soraþenaw cor? (do you not take it?) → izir (yes, I do) / cor (no, I do not)

Relative clauses

Væyne Zaanics uses the same relativization strategy as Latin, the pronominal forms of jur serve as a relative pronoun, which agrees in class and number with the noun it relativizes and whose case depends on its role in the embedded clause:

Vaneh tiriva cafuuþon (the eagle fights the pigeon)
→ Vaneh jurneh tiriva cafuuþon (the eagle that fights the pigeon)
→ Tirivoh jurna Vaneh cafuuþon (the pigeon that the eagle fights)

When the relative pronoun is in the genitive and relativizes a possessor, the possessee may either precede or follow the relative pronoun, it is the only case where a possessor may precede a possessee:

Awnoh vanec tiriva cafuuþon (the eagle's father fights the pigeon)
→ Vaneh awnoh jurnec tiriva cafuuþon (the eagle whose father fights the pigeon)
→ Vaneh jurnec awnoh tiriva cafuuþon (the eagle whose father fights the pigeon)
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