View source for High Valyrian Grammar

{{LangBar|High Valyrian|High Valyrian|Nekesse Valyrio}}[[Category:Grammar pages]]

'''High Valyrian''' is a heavily inflected, mostly {{wl|head-final}}, language. The word order is strongly verb-final (subject–object–verb). Nouns and adjectives are inflected for number, case and gender, and verbs for person, number, tense, voice, and mood. 

Nouns belong to one of four genders (lunar, solar, terrestrial and aquatic), that have no relationship to sexual gender. Most humans are either of the lunar or solar gender. For example '''vala''' "man" is of lunar gender, and '''ābra''' "woman" is too. They also can inflect for one of four grammatical numbers (singular, plural, collective and paucal). The collective number conveys the idea of totality, while the paucal conveys the idea of a small number.

As well as having gender and number, nouns, adjectives, and pronouns have forms with different endings according to their function in the sentence, for example, '''dārys''' "king" (subject), but '''dāri''' "king" (object). These different forms are called cases. Most nouns have eight cases: nominative (subject), accusative (direct object), genitive ("of"), dative (indirect object; "to" or "for"), locative ("in"), instrumental ("with" or "by"), comitative ("with" or "together with"), and vocative (used for addressing). Some noun declension classes merge two or more cases. Also, there is no definite or indefinite article in High Valyrian, so that '''dārys''' can mean "king", "a king", or "the king" according to context.

Adjectives must agree with nouns in gender, number and case, and have four degrees of comparison (positive, comparative, superlative and equative). Adjectives may precede or follow a noun, with the exception of certain determiners and demonstratives, which almost always precede. If such an adjective follows its noun, it gives it a more "official" feel. In some cases this might be done for simple emphasis. When an adjective is ''postpositive'', that is, when it follows the noun it modifies, it has the complete set of endings. However, when it is ''prepositive'', meaning it precedes the noun, the endings are shortened and more prone to fall together.

Verbs conjugate for seven tenses (present, aorist, future, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect and past habitual), two voices (active and passive) and three moods (indicative, subjunctive and imperative). Tenses in High Valyrian often convey information both about time and {{wl|aspect}}. {{wl|Finite verb}} forms agree with the subject in person and number. There are also {{wl|non-finite verb}} forms (infinitives and participles), which do not. To show agreement, finite verbs take various endings, for example '''iksan''' means "I am", even without the independent personal pronoun '''nyke''' "I". High Valyrian usually omits these pronouns, except when emphasis on the subject is desired, i.e. is a ''{{wl|pro-drop}}'' language. High Valyrian also employs a number of verbal prefixes called ''applicatives'', which can change how the semantic roles of the verb (agent, patient and so on) are encoded (specifically which case is used for which role).

==Vocabulary==
:''Main article: [[High Valyrian Vocabulary]]''
:''Main article: [[High Valyrian Dictionary]]''
:''Main article: [[Appendix:High_Valyrian_phrasebook/Basic|High Valyrian Word Groups]]''

==Phonology==
:''Main article: [[High Valyrian Phonology]]''

=== Consonants ===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" | 
! Labial
! Dental
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular
! Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| m [m] ||  || n [n] || ñ [ɲ] || colspan="2" | (n [ŋ ~ ɴ]) || 
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plosive
! <small>voiceless</small>
| p [p] ||  || t [t] ||  || k [k] || q [q] || 
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| b [b] ||  || d [d] ||  || g [ɡ] ||  || 
|-
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! <small>voiceless</small>
|  || (th [θ]) || s [s] ||  || colspan="2" | (kh [x ~ χ]) || h [h]
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| rowspan="2" | v [v ~ w] ||  || z [z] || rowspan="2" | j [ɟ ~ dʒ ~ ʒ ~ j] || colspan="2" | gh [ɣ ~ ʁ] || 
|-
! colspan="2" | Approximant
|  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! colspan="2" | Lateral
|  ||  || l [l] || lj [ʎ] ||  ||  || 
|-
! rowspan="2" | Rhotic
! <small>voiceless</small>
|  ||  || rh [r̥] ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
|  ||  || r [r ~ ɾ] ||  ||  ||  || 
|}

Notes:
* In antiquity, /j/ could be pronounced [j] or [ɟ]: always [ɟ] before [i] or [y]; often before [e]; sometimes elsewhere. Modern speakers' pronunciation varies between [j], [ʒ] and [dʒ], depending largely on region, and native language.    
* [ŋ] and [ɴ] are in parentheses because they are not phonemes, but allophones of /n/. The phoneme /n/ assimilates to a following velar or uvular consonant, e.g. ''ēngos'' /ˈeːngos/ "tongue" is pronounced [ˈeːŋgos], ''valonqar'' /vaˈlonqar/ "little brother" is [vaˈloɴqar].
* [θ] and [x ~ χ] are in parentheses because they occur only in words of foreign origin. As foreign sounds, they may not always be pronounced as they ideally should be. For instance, some speakers might pronounce ''Thoros'' as [ˈθoros], but others might just say [ˈtoros] or possibly even [ˈsoros]. Likewise, some might pronounce ''arakh'' [aˈɾax] or [aˈɾaχ], some [aˈɾah], some might even say [aˈɾaɣ] or [aˈɾaʁ].
* /r/ is generally a trill ([r]), but is a tap ([ɾ]) when following a vowel medially.
* In antiquity, /v/ could be pronounced [w] or [v]: always [v] before [u]; often before [o]; sometimes elsewhere. Modern speakers' pronunciation varies between [w], and [v], depending largely on region, and native language.

=== Vowels ===
High Valyrian has 6 phonetically distinct vowel qualities, each of which can be either long or short:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Short
| rowspan="6" | 
! colspan="3" | Long
|-
! colspan="2" | Front
! rowspan="2" | Back
! colspan="2" | Front
! rowspan="2" | Back
|-
! <small>unrounded</small>
! <small>rounded</small>
! <small>unrounded</small>
! <small>rounded</small>
|-
! Close
| i [i]
| y [y]*
| u [u]
| ī [iː]
| ȳ [yː]*
| ū [uː]
|-
! Mid
| e [e]
|
| o [o]
| ē [eː]
|
| ō [oː]
|-
! Open
| a [a]
| || 
| ā [aː]
| || 
|}

<nowiki>*</nowiki> Many modern speakers do not distinguish ''y'' from ''i'' and pronounce both as [i].


==Nouns==
Nouns in High Valyrian decline for case and number, and are categorized into genders. 

===Gender===
There are four genders in High Valyrian: 
# Lunar ('''hūrenkon qogror''')
# Solar ('''vēzenkon qogror''')
# Terrestrial ('''tegōñor qogror''')
# Aquatic ('''embōñor qogror''')

As a general principle, most lunar nouns end in a vowel, most solar nouns in an '''-s''', most terrestrials in '''-n''', most aquatics in '''-r'''. But there are a significant number of exceptions to this guideline. In particular, all paucals end in '''-n''' and all collectives in '''-r''', no matter what their gender.

There is no exact equivalence between the genders and semantic categories, but there are some general tendencies:

* '''Lunar'''{{ID|Lunar}} mostly words for humans ''vala'' "man," ''abra'' "woman," ''muña'' "mother,", nocturnal animals ''zokla'' "wolf", ''atroksia'' "owl," ''kēli'' "cat", military equipment ''gelte'' "helmet," ''korze'' "longsword," ''azandy'' "shortsword". 
* '''Solar'''{{ID|Solar}} is also mostly for humans ''quptys'' "heathen," ''zentys'' "guest,", diurnal animals ''gryves'' "bear," ''zaldrīzes'' "dragon," ''hobres'' "goat," names of occupations ''azantys'' "soldier," ''dārys'' "king," ''voktys'' "priest," ''loktys'' "sailor," and body parts ''deks'' "foot," ''kris'' "leg," ''relgos'' "mouth," ''pungos'' "nose".
* '''Aquatic'''{{ID|Aquatic}} is mostly used for liquids and bodies of water ''iēdar'' "water," ''ānogar'' "blood," ''embar'' "sea," ''qelbar'' "river," they are also mostly the gender of various derivational suffixes.
* '''Terrestrial'''{{ID|Terrestrial}} is mostly used for foodstuffs ''havon'' "bread," ''parklon'' "meat", plants and metals ''āeksion'' "gold," ''gēlion'' "silver," ''brāedion'' "copper," ''korzion'' "steel."

===Number===
High Valyrian nouns have four grammatical numbers: singular, plural, collective, and paucal. Adjectives, verbs, and pronouns only have specific forms for the singular and plural, with the collective being treated as singular, and the paucal as plural. {{ID|Singular}}The singular (as in "a cat") refers to a single instance or a unit of something. {{ID|Plural}}The plural (as in "cats") refers to several instances or a larger number of something. They function much the same way as they do in English. The collective and paucal numbers, which English does not have, are discussed in further detail in the following sections. 

==== Collective ====
Collectives end in '''r''' in the nominative. They retain the same gender as their corresponding singular. In general they refer to a large group of something, or that thing as a whole. Words that refer to ordinary humans not associated with a profession usually mean "all" (e.g. '''valar''' "all men," '''ābrar''' "all women, all people"); those that do refer to a profession are more likely to refer to a group (e.g. '''azantyr''' "army.")

Collectives often acquire a special meaning (e.g. '''muña''' "mother" &rarr; '''muñar''' "parents.") Sometimes this results in them being reanalyzed into entirely new words, with their own plural (e.g. '''azantys''' pl. '''azantyssy''' "soldier" &rarr; '''azantyr''' pl. '''azantyri''' "army").

There seems to be a general tendency for the collective of a word referring to a female to refer to both genders, e.g. '''muña''' "mother" &rarr; '''muñar''' "parents;" '''ābra''' "woman" &rarr; '''ābrar''' "all people;" '''riña''' "girl," &rarr; '''riñar''' "children."

Note that while English does not have a collective number, it does have collective nouns (e.g. "humanity," "soldiery," and so on), and these can often, if not always, be used to get a better understanding of the corresponding HV word.

==== Paucal ====
Paucals end in '''n''' in the nominative. They retain the same gender as their corresponding singular. In general they refer to a small group of something, and may be translated "a few" or "some."

Paucals often acquire a special meaning (e.g. ''tīkos'' pl. ''tīkossa'' "feather" &rarr; ''tīkun'' pl. ''tīkuni'' "wing.") Sometimes this results in them being reanalyzed into entirely new words, with their own plural (e.g. ''tīkuni'' "wings").

===Case===
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Noun Cases|High Valyrian Noun Cases]]''
Nouns in High Valyrian have a series of different forms called ''cases'', which indicate the role or function of the noun in the clause. These are generally indicated through the changing of the ending of the noun. For example, the word for "king" is in the nominative case, '''dārys''', when it is the subject of a verb (nominative case), but when it is the object, it is rendered in the accusative case, '''dāri'''.

==== Nominative ====
The nominative case is used for the subject of an active or a passive verb:
:'''''Āeksio''' yne ilīritas'' = The Lord has smiled upon me

It is also used for the complement of a copula verb such as issa "he is":
:'''''Zaldrīzes''' buzdari iksos daor'' = A dragon is not a slave
:''Davido '''zaldrīzes''' aōhos zaldrīzose rovyktys issa'' = David’s dragon is bigger than your dragon

The nominative singular is the citation form for declinable words, and thus the form one normally uses when looking a word up in the dictionary.

==== Accusative ====
The accusative case is used for the object of a sentence:
:'''''Āeksia''' ossēnātās, '''menti''' ossēnātās!'' = Slay the masters, slay the soldiers!

The applied object of a verb containing the oblique applicatve prefix, i-, will be in the accusative. This will usually be a word one would otherwise expect to be in the dative:
:'''''Belmurtī''' ivestrās kesir pōnte jiōrinna'' = Tell the slavers I will receive them here
(If the verb had been vestrās, without the i-, we would have expected the dative *''belmurtoti'' instead.)

In phrases that aren't complete sentences, words may be in the accusative, as if dependent on an unstated verb. This is called the "accusative of exclamation":
:''Biare Arlie '''Jēdari'''!'' = Happy New Year!

==== Genitive ====
The genitive case is used for possessives, and in general anything that would be expressed with "of" in English:
:''Va '''oktio''' remȳti vale jikās'' = Send a man to the gates '''of the city'''

Note that personal pronouns generally do not use the genitive to express possession, instead they use their possessive adjective.

The "genitive of material" to indicate what something is made out of:
:'''''Āeksio''' ondos'' = Hand '''of gold'''

The genitive is used to indicate what a container that is more or less closed, e.g. a jug or a bottle, but sometimes a bowl too, is filled with (the [[#Comitative|comitative]] is used in other cases):
: '''''Jūlro''' māvos'' = A jug '''of milk'''

All postpositions take a genitive object:
:''Dāeri vali '''pōntālo''' syt gaomoti iderēbzi'' = Free men make choices for '''themselves'''

The applied object of a verb containing the locative applicatve prefix, u-, will be in the genitive if the verb in question begins with a consonant.
:''Jemēlo syt ziry mazemagon '''jemo''' bēvilza'' = It is incumbent on you to take it for '''yourselves'''

==== Dative ====
The dative case means "to" or "for". It is frequently used with verbs of saying or giving as an indirect object:
:''Voktys Eglie '''aōt''' gaomilaksir teptas'' = The High Priest gave you a mission

The applied object of a verb containing the locative applicatve prefix, u-, will be in the dative if the verb in question begins with a vowel. In addition, certain verbs may take a dative object for other reasons.
:''Keso '''glaesot''' iderēptōt daor'' = You did not choose this life

Two out of the three prepositions may take a dative case, depending on the meaning.

However, the dative is less common in High Valyrian than one might think since the oblique applicative turns many datives into accusatives.

==== Locative ====
The locative is basically used to indicate location:
:''Olvī voktī Rulloro '''Qelbriā''' ūndessun daor'' = I don’t see many priestesses of R’hllor in the Riverlands

This also includes time:
:''Kesȳ '''tubī''' jemot dāervī tepan'' = On this day I give you freedom

Additionally all three prepositions may take a locative object:
:''Va oktio '''remȳti''' vale jikās'' = Send a man to the city gates

==== Instrumental ====
The instrumental indicates the instrument or means (may be translated "by" or "with," but critically "with" in the sense of "by means of."):
:'''''Quptenkos Ēngoso''' ȳdrassia?'' = Do you speak the Common tongue? (i.e. literally "by means of the Common Tongue")

The instrumental is also used to form adverbs:
:''Mentyri idañe jevi ivestrilātās '''keskydoso''' gaomagon'' = You shall tell your fellow soldiers to do likewise
:'''''Aōhoso''' ziry rijībiā, se '''ñuhoso''' ziry rijībin'' = You worship Him your way, and I’ll worship Him mine

Certain verbs require this case, e.g. mijegon (probably an "instrumental of separation"):
:''Dōrior dārion '''udrirzi''' mijessis'' = No kingdom lacks a language

It is also used with comparative adjectives, to mean "than":
:''Davido zaldrīzes '''aōhos zaldrīzose''' rovyktys issa'' = David’s dragon is bigger than your dragon

==== Comitative ====
The comitative case mainly indicates accompaniment. May be translated "with" in the sense of "along with". It's worth noting that in some declension types the comitative merges with the instrumental.
:''Morghor '''zijomy''' amāzis'' = The dead come '''with it'''
:''Zaldrīzesse '''Daeneromy''' ēdrusi'' = The dragons are sleeping '''with Daenerys'''.

The comitative is also used to indicate what an object that is more or less open, e.g. a plate, but sometimes a bowl too, has on (or in) it (the [[#Genitive|genitive]] is used in other cases):
: '''''Havormo''' tēgriapos'' = A plate '''of food'''

==== Vocative ====
The vocative is mainly used when addressing someone directly:
:'''''Dovaogēdys'''! Naejot memēbātās!'' = Unsullied! Forward march!
:'''''Muñus jorrāeliarzus''''' = Dearest mother

It may also occur in adjectives being used predicatively to a vocative noun:
:'''''Jaehossas sȳris''' sātās'' = Gods be good!

Another particular use of the vocative in High Valyrian is with the infinitive to form a "third person command."
:'''''Dohaerirus''' māzigon!'' = May a slave come!

===Noun Declension===
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Noun Declensions|High Valyrian Noun Declensions]]''

Nouns are divided into different groups according to the patterns of their case endings. These different groups are known as ''declensions''. High Valyrian has six declensions, beginning with the first declension: '''vala'''.

==== First declension ====
First declension nouns have the stem-vowel '''a'''. There are at least two types of first declension nouns, and at least one subtype: 
* Those that end in '''-a''' (e.g. '''vala''' "man"), mostly lunar.
** A subtype that ends in '''-ia''' (e.g. '''dāria''' "queen.")
* Those that end in '''-ar''' (e.g. '''embar''' "water"), mostly aquatic.

The first declension paradigm merges the genitive, dative, and locative plural (as do nearly all nouns), but distinguishes all other forms.

===== Lunar and ''-ia'' Subtype =====
{{Sthval1|val|a|dār|ia}}

===== Aquatic =====
{{hv-decl1+r|emb|a|i|e|embr|ar|ī|nocat=1}}

==== Second Declension ====
Second declension nouns have the stem-vowel '''y'''. There are two types of second declension nouns: 
* Those that end in '''-y''' (e.g. '''egry''' "knife"), mostly lunar.
* Those that end in '''-ys''' (e.g. '''dārys''' "king"), mostly solar.

There are not terrestrial- or aquatic-types, so any word whose citation form ends in '''-yn''' or '''-yr''' can safely assumed to be [[#Reanalyzed Paucals|reanalyzed paucals]] and [[#Reanalyzed Collectives|collectives]] respectively.

The second declension merges the locative and instrumental singular; locative and instrumental plural; and the genitive and dative plural. Critically it distinguishes the locative plural from the genitive/dative, and is the only noun class in the language to do so.

===== Lunar =====
{{HVn2|egr|y|nocat=1}}

=====Solar=====
{{Hv-decl2|dār|y|ī|sy|dār|ys||sys|nocat=1}}

==== Third Declension ====
Third declension nouns have the stem-vowel '''o'''. The third declension is very diverse: all four gender-types occur in the third declension, and several subtypes: 
* Those that end in '''-o''' (e.g. '''avero''' "grape"), mostly lunar.
** A subtype that ends in '''-io''' (e.g. '''āeksio''' "master.")
* Those that end in '''-os''' (e.g. '''ēngos''' "tongue"), mostly solar.
** At least three subtypes, to accommodate such words as '''rūs''' "baby," '''deks''' "foot," and '''ȳs''' "art."
* Those that end in '''-on''' (e.g. '''belmon''' "chain"), mostly terrestrial.
** A subtype that ends in '''-ion''' (e.g. '''gēlion''' "silver.")
* Those that end in '''-or''' (e.g. '''bēgor''' "trout"), mostly aquatic.
** A subtype to accommodate '''Mȳr''' (and any other words that might be like it).

The third declension merges the nominative and accusative singular, dative and locative singular; the instrumental and comitative singular; the nominative and accusative plural, and the genitive, dative, and locative plural.

===== Lunar and ''-io'' Subtype =====
{{Sthval3|aver|o|āeks|io}}

===== Solar and Contracting Subtype =====
{{Sthval3sol|ēng|os|jaos|jaoh|deks|dek}}

===== Terrestrial =====
{{HVn3|belm|on|nocat=1}}

===== ''-ion'' Subtype  =====
{{Hv-decl3+ion|gēl|nocat=1}}

===== Aquatic and ''Mȳr'' Subtype =====
{{Sthval3aq|bēg|or|Mȳ|r}}

==== Fourth Declension ====
Fourth declension nouns have the stem-vowel '''e'''. There are at least three types of fourth declension nouns: 
* Those that end in '''-e''' (e.g. '''gelte''' "helmet"), mostly lunar.
* Those that end in '''-es''' (e.g. '''zaldrīzes''' "dragon"), mostly solar.
* Those that end in '''-en''' (only known example at this time is '''Targārien''' "Targaryen"), mostly terrestrial.

No aquatic-type fourth declension nouns attested so far. The fourth declension does not appear to merge any cases, other than the usual genitive, dative, and locative plural.

===== Lunar =====
{{HVn4|gelt|e|nocat=1}}

===== Solar =====
{{HVn4|zaldrīz|es|nocat=1}}

===== Terrestrial =====
{{HVn4|Targār|ien|nocat=1}}

==== Fifth Declension ====
Fifth declension nouns have the stem-vowel '''i'''. There are at least two types of fifth declension nouns: 
* Those that end in '''-i''' (e.g. '''brōzi''' "name"), mostly [[High Valyrian Gender|lunar]].
* Those that end in '''-is''' (e.g. '''tubis''' "day"), mostly [[High Valyrian Gender|solar]]
* Those that end in '''-ir''' (e.g. '''rōbir''' "fig"), mostly [[High Valyrian Gender|aquatic]].

There does not appear to be a terrestrial ('''*-in''') type. 

It is known that the fifth declension merges the nominative and accusative singular; the nominative and accusative plural; and the usual genitive, dative, and locative plural.

===== Lunar =====
{{HVn5|brōz|i|nocat=1}}

===== Solar =====
{{HVn5|tub|is|nocat=1}}

===== Aquatic =====
{{HVn5|rōb|ir|nocat=1}}                   
{{HVn5|vestriar|zir|nocat=1}}

==== Sixth Declension ====
The sixth declension is used for miscellaneous nouns. It includes borrowings such as foreign words especially those that have not been fully accepted into the language (e.g. '''buzdari'''), are mostly lumped into this paradigm. In the nominative singular the final '''-i''' is optional. It is mandatory in the accusative singular and plural forms. 

If a borrowed word already ends in a vowel, it can still be borrowed into this declension by keeping the final vowel in the nominative singular, in place of the optional '''-i''', but dropping it in favor of the case-endings elsewhere, e.g. nom.s. '''mhysa''', acc.s. '''mhysi''', voc.s. '''mhysis''' etc. There is also the possibility of adding '''-h-''' to the stem, analogously to the third declension contracting subtype: '''Yunkai''', dat. '''Yunkaihot'''.

The accusative singular, nominative plural, and optionally the nominative singular of this paradigm all end in '''-i'''. It has the usual genitive, dative, locative plural merger. Other than that, all forms are distinct.

===== Borrowing or Foreign Type =====
{{HVn6|buzdar|i|nocat=1}}

====== Rare Subtype ======
{{HVn6forpauc|Jaq|en|nocat=1}}

===== Reanalyzed Collectives =====
{{ID|Collective plural}}Sometimes a collective acquires so specific a meaning that it begins to be thought of as a separate word (e.g. '''azantyr''' "army," originally the collective of '''azantys''' "soldier.") At this point, a way to pluralize them becomes necessary, which puts them into the sixth declension. Reanalyzed collectives retain the gender of the original word, and therefore can be any gender.

Reanalyzed collectives merge the instrumental and vocative singular (like regular collectives) as well as the genitive, dative, and locative plural. The singular keeps its usual collective declension (e.g. '''azantyrmy''' "along with an army," '''udrirzi''' "in a language.") If a reanalyzed collective were ever to be itself placed in the collective or paucal, the first declension paradigms ('''-ar''', '''-un''') would probably be used. However, it is uncertain if this ever happens.

{{HVn6coll2|ābr|a|nocat=1}}

===== Reanalyzed Paucals =====
{{ID|Paucal plural}}Sometimes a paucal acquires so specific a meaning that it begins to be thought of as a separate word (e.g. '''tīkun''' "wing," originally the paucal of '''tīkos''' "feather"). At this point, a way to pluralize them becomes necessary, which puts them into the sixth declension. Reanalyzed paucals retain the gender of the original word, and therefore can be any gender.

Reanalyzed paucals merge the instrumental and vocative singular (like regular paucals) as well as the genitive, dative, and locative plural. The singular keeps its usual paucal declension (e.g. '''tīkusso''' "by wing."). If a reanalyzed plural were ever to be itself placed in the paucal or collective, the first declension paradigms ('''-un''', '''-ar''') would probably be used. However, it is uncertain that this ever happens.

{{HVn6pauc|teg|on|nocat=1}}

=== Noun Derivation ===
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Derivational Affixes|High Valyrian Derivational Affixes]]''
Derivational affixes are prefixes and suffixes used to form a new word, as opposed to inflectional affixes, which are used to inflect an existing word. In some cases it is debatable whether a particular affix is inflectional or derivational. High Valyrian shows the usage of several affixes for word formation, not unlike other flexive languages such as English, Latin or Greek.

A negative prefix takes the form '''do-''', '''dor-''' used in a similar fashion to English ''un-'':
:''zālty'' "burnt", '''Dorzālty''' "Unburnt".
:''vaogēdy'' "sullied", '''Dovaogēdy''' "Unsullied".

There's also another negative prefix '''nā-''', which seems to be more derivational, being used to form the negative concept of the word it prefixes:
:''morghūlilaros'' "mortal", '''nāmorghūlilaros''' "immortal".
:''pāsiros'' "believer", '''nāpāsiros''' "nonbeliever, unbeliever".
Notice, however, that even when these seem to use the same ''in-'' or ''un-'' prefix in the translation, the meaning is "the contrary of", hence:
:''kostōba'' "strong", '''nākostōba''' "weak".

A very well-known suffix for nouns is the suffix '''-āzma''', an augmentative:
:'''brāedāzma''' "bronze", compare ''brāedion'' "copper".
:'''jelmāzma''' "storm", compare ''jelmio'' "wind".

The suffix '''-ītsos''' is a diminutive:
:'''riñītsos''' "little child, little girl", compare ''riña'' "child".
:'''zoklītsos''' "little wolf", compare ''zokla'' "wolf".

And another very well-known one is the suffix '''-tys''', especially frequent in the names of professions:
:'''azan·tys''' "soldier"
:'''lok·tys''' "sailer"
:'''men·tys''' "soldier "
:'''vok·tys''' "priest"

==Pronouns==
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Pronouns|High Valyrian Pronouns]]''
{{ID|Pronoun}}{{ID|Pronouns}}
=== Personal Pronouns ===
{{ID|Personal pronoun}}Personal pronouns are used to refer to referents (nouns) which have been previously mentioned or are known to the listener, for example "I" and "you" in English. Personal pronouns in High Valyrian exist for first{{ID|First-person}} person ("I"/"we", speaker), second{{ID|Second-person}} person ("you"/"you all", listener) and third{{ID|Third-person}} person ("he"/"she"/"it"/"they") which each has singular and plural forms. Third person pronouns have different forms for animate and inanimate referents. This is similar to English distinction "he/she" vs. "it". Personal pronouns inflect for all cases as follows (the table includes possessive and reflexive pronouns as well, although they are not strictly inflected forms of the personal pronouns):
{{val-decl-ppron}}

=== Possessive Pronouns ===
{{ID|Possessive pronoun}}Possessive pronouns are used to refer to nouns which are possessed or belong to someone or something, like "mine" or "yours" in English. As with other adjectives in High Valyrian, possessive adjectives cannot stand on their own without a head noun. Instead, a substantive (noun) form is used. The possessive pronouns do not have the substantive forms in '''-y''' and '''-ir''' as would be expected for first class adjectives (to which possessive adjectives belong), but instead end in '''-on''' and so decline like third declension nouns. For example, '''ñuhon''' "mine":
{{Hv-decl3-pron|ñuh|o|a|o|ñuh|on||nd|nocat=1}}
=== Possessive Adjectives ===
{{ID|Possessive adjective}}Possessive adjectives are adjectives used to describe nouns attributively according to who they belong to, such as "my" and "your" in English. For example, '''ñuha''' "my":
{{hv-adj-1-nocomp|root=ñuh|aqu=ñurh|adv=no|nocat=1}}

=== Synopsis ===
An overview of the different pronouns, or more generally ''{{wl|pro-forms}}'', used in High Valyrian collected in a so-called ''{{wl|table of correlatives}}:
{{hv-pro-forms}}

==Adjectives==
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Adjectives|High Valyrian Adjectives]]''
Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number and case and decline accordingly. There are no separate paucal and collective forms of adjectives; paucal nouns take plural agreement and collective nouns singular agreement. Adjectives decline according to their declension class and can also be inflected for comparison. {{ID|Prepositive}}{{ID|Postpositive}}Adjectives most commonly precede the noun they modify, and in those cases take a prepositive form, although they may follow it, and then take a postpositive form. The postpositive form is the more original, with more elaborate endings and fewer case mergers, while the prepositive has shortened endings and merges more cases compared to the postpositive forms, and also displays some phonological assimilation to the following word in certain forms. 

===Comparison===
There are four degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, superlative and equative. For an adjective "X", the positive form is the bare (or dictionary) form, and conveys the basic meaning of the adjective. Below, the other degrees of comparison are detailed. 

====Comparative====
The comparative form means "more X" or "X-er" and is a class I adjective formed with a suffix ending in '''-kta''' or similar. To say "more X than Y", the noun Y takes the instrumental case. 

====Superlative====
The superlative form means "most X" or "X-est" and is a class II adjective formed with a suffix ending in '''-je'''. 

====Equative====
The equative means "as X" or "equally X" and is a class I adjective formed with a suffix ending in '''-pa'''. To say "(as) X as Y", the noun Y takes the instrumental case:
: {{example2|Sȳndroso lykāpa, myrdomy aderpa, iēdrosa gīdāpa.|Quiet as a shadow, swift as a deer, calm as still water.}}

The preposition {{m|hval|hae}} may also be used, with the noun or pronoun being compared to taking the dative case: 
: {{example2|Hae skorot vala bōsāpa issa?|How tall is the man?}} (literally ''"The man is as tall as what?"'')

To say "as X a Y as any" or "as X as any Y", one can also use {{m|hval|hen}}, with the noun Y in the dative:
: {{example2|Yn kesys tubis hen mirro tubiot sȳrpys issa.|But today is as good a day as any.}}

The differences between and exact conditions for the constructions mentioned above are unclear at present.

===Adjective Declension===

Adjectives fall into one of three classes: class I (first declension class), class II (second declension class), and class III (third declension class). These should not be confused with the similarly named declension classes of nouns. 

====Class I====
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Adjectives#Class I|High Valyrian Adjectives § Class I]]''
=====Generic type=====
{{hv-adj-1|root=kast|nocat=1}}
=====Aquatic type=====
{{hv-adj-1|root=endīh|aqu=endīrh|nocat=1}}
======''J''-final subtype======
{{hv-adj-1|root=dij|aqu=dij|nocat=1}}

====Class II====
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Adjectives#Class II|High Valyrian Adjectives § Class II]]''

=====Generic type=====
{{hv-adj-2|root=kirin|equ=kirimp|cmpr=kirinkt|cmpraq=kirintr|supl=kirinj|nocat=1}}

=====Palatal-final type=====
{{hv-adj-2-pal|root=drāñ|equ=drāmp|cmpr=drānkt|cmpraq=drāntr|supl=drānj|nocat=1}}

=====''Sȳz'' type=====
{{hv-adj-2-z|root=sȳ|equ=sȳrp|cmpr=sȳrkt|cmpraq=sȳrtr|supl=sȳrj|nocat=1}}

====Class III====
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Adjectives#Class III|High Valyrian Adjectives § Class III]]''
{{hv-adj-3|root=egl|nocat=1}}

==Adverbs==
{{ID|adverb}}Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives with suffixes (equivalent to ''-ly'' in English): '''-irī/-rī''' for class I adjectives as well as equatives, comparatives and superlatives, and '''-ī''' for class II and class III adjectives. Dative, locative and instrumental forms of nouns are also commonly used as adverbs.

==Adpositions==
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Adpositions|High Valyrian Adpositions]]''

Adposition is a general term to refer to both ''prepositions'' (which precede their object) and ''postpositions'' (which follow their object.) High Valyrian utilizes both kinds.

=== Prepositions ===
There are only three prepositions in the High Valyrian language. '''Hae''' only occurs with the locative, but '''hen''' and '''va''' can also take a dative.

'''hae''' (→loc.): as, like. (cf. [[Astapori Valyrian]] '''he''')<br>
'''hen''' (→loc.): from, of; (→dat.) out of, on account of, thanks to, because of, for. (cf. [[Astapori Valyrian]] '''hin''')<br>
'''va''' (→loc.): towards, at, near; (→dat.) to, all the way up to, into. (cf. [[Astapori Valyrian]] '''va''')<br>

=== Postpostions ===
All known postpositions take a genitive object. This makes sense, as they all seem to have evolved from nouns in the locative, dative, or instrumental case.

'''bē''' (→gen): on, on top of, upon; on (the subject of), about.<br>
'''gō''' (→gen): under, beneath, below; before.<br>
'''hēdrȳ''' (→gen): from amongst, from the midst of.<br>
'''iemnȳ''' {→gen): within.<br>
'''naejot''' (→gen): in front of. (cf. [[Astapori Valyrian]] '''nejo''')<br>
'''ondoso''' (→gen): by. (cf. [[Astapori Valyrian]] '''dos''', which, however, means "with")<br>
'''rȳ''' (→gen): between, through, across, throughout<br>
'''syt''' (→gen): for. (cf. [[Astapori Valyrian]] '''zy''')<br>
'''toliot''' (→gen): over; after.<br>
'''mijiot''' (→gen): without.<br>

==Verbs==
Verbs conjugate according to tense, voice and mood. Finite verb forms agree with the subject in person and number. 

===Tense===
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Verb Conjugation| Verb Conjugation, by Tense]]''
High Valyrian has seven tenses: present, aorist, future, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect and past habitual. 

====Present====
The present tense is used for events that are happening at the current moment, and can often be translated into English as "is X-ing".

====Aorist====
The aorist tense is used for statements about general truths or facts and events that usually or always occur. 

====Future====
The future tense is used for things that will happen or are going to occur. 

====Imperfect====
The imperfect tense is used to indicate events that were ongoing in the past, and can generally be translated by "was X-ing" in English. 

====Perfect====
The perfect tense is used to discuss events completed prior to the present moment. It can be translated as either "has X-ed" or "X-ed" in English, depending on context. 

====Pluperfect====
The pluperfect tense is used to talk about prior events from the perspective of a past point in time. In general, it can be translated as "had X-ed" in English.

====Past Habitual====
{{ID|Past habitual}}
The past habitual tense is used for things that occured generally or repeatedly over some period in the past, and can often be translated as "used to X" in English.

===Voice===
There are two voices of transitive verbs in High Valyrian: active and passive. 

====Active====
In the active voice, the subject of a transitive verb is the one acting upon the object (the agent), e.g. "The woman ate the apple". This is the unmarked of the two voices. 

====Passive====
In the passive voice, the subject of a transitive verb is the one being acted upon (the patient). The agent (the "old" subject) can be left out ("The apple was eaten"). It can also be expressed with the genitive case or a prepositional phrase. 

The passive voice is almost always indicated through morphology in High Valyrian, and contains the affix ''-ks(-)'' for most finite verb forms, or ''-iarza'' in the case of some participles.  There is one example of an analytically formed almost-passive in the phrase {{m|hval|keliton}} {{m|hval|issa}} "it is ended", with the perfect participle and the copula being used. This does not seem, however, to be a common construction. Some transitive verbs, such as {{m|hval|henujagon}} and {{m|hval|jokorigon}}, formed off the irregular intransitive verb {{m|hval|jagon}}, lack passive forms for morphological reasons. Also, they would not form their passives through a {{m|hval|keliton}} {{m|hval|issa}}-type construction.

===Mood===
High Valyrian has three verb moods: indicative, subjunctive and imperative.

====Indicative====
The indicative mood is used to for statements that are considered true, certain or factual, and is the unmarked mood. 

====Subjunctive====
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High_Valyrian_Verb_Moods#Uses_of_the_subjunctive|Uses of the Subjunctive]]''
The subjunctive mood is used to speak about hypothetical, uncertain or otherwise non-real events. One of its most common uses is in negative statements using {{m|hval|daor|gloss=not}}.

====Imperative====
The imperative mood is used for commands and instructions. It exists only in second-person forms, i.e. those which refer to the listener. Commands for other persons are formed through other constructions. They inflect for three tenses: present, aorist and future. The active imperatives have separate singular and plural forms, while the passive imperatives merge the two.

===Non-finite Verb Forms===
Non-finite verb forms are those that do not inflect for person or number of the subject. On their own, they lack a subject, and so cannot consititute a main clause on their own, but are instead used to complete the meaning of other clauses. However, if used together with pronouns in particular constructions, the infinitive can be used as the verb of a main clause. 

====Infinitive====
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High_Valyrian_Verb_Moods#Uses_of_the_infinitive|Uses of the Infinitive]]''
The infinitive form (specifically the present active infinitive) is the dictionary form in High Valyrian. It can be translated into English as "(to) X" or "X-ing". The infinitive can take the role of a noun, either as a complement or as the subject to another verb. Infinitives exist for several voice and tense combinations, although not all. 

====Participles====
{{ID|Participle}}
Participles are verb forms which are adjectives in form, and so modify nouns as part of a participial phrase. Participles exist for several voice and tense combinations, although not all.

===Verb Conjugation===
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Verb Conjugation| Verb Conjugation, by Tense]]''
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Verb Tables | Verb Tables, by Stem Type]]''
There are two main conjugation groups in High Valyrian, based on the final phoneme of the verb stem: consonant-final and vowel-final. There are also the irregular verbs, which have unpredictable patterns of conjugation.

====Consonant-Final Verbs====
=====Liquid Stems=====
{{HVvg|zā|l||zālt|nocat=1}}

=====Nasal Stems=====
{{HVvg|je|m||jent||jē|nocat=1}}

=====Voiced-Stop Stems=====
{{HVvg|rȳ|b||rypt|nocat=1}}

=====Voiceless-Stop Stems=====
{{HVvg|e|p||ept|nocat=1}}

=====Palatal-Resonant Stems=====
{{HVvg|ū|ñ||ūnt|nocat=1}}

=====Other Stems=====
This conjugation includes stems that end in fricatives and consonant clusters. 
{{HVvg|pā|s||pāst|nocat=1}}

======''Gh''-Final Subtype======
This conjugation subtype has an alternate third-person present active indicative in '''-za'''/'''-zi''' with fortition of the stem-final '''gh''' to '''g'''.
{{HVvg|he|gh||hēd|nocat=1}}

====Vowel-Final Verbs====
=====A-Stems=====
{{HVvg|ell||a|nocat=1}}

=====E-Stems=====
{{HVvg|ōr||e|nocat=1}}
======Perfect Stem Subtype======
{{HVvg|urn||e|ūnd|nocat=1}}

=====I-Stems=====
{{HVvg|vūj||i|nocat=1}}
======Perfect Stem Subtype======
{{HVvg|laod||i|lāett|nocat=1}}

=====O-Stems=====
{{HVvg|pil||o|nocat=1}}

=====U-Stems=====
{{HVvg|lur||u|nocat=1}}

======Subjunctive Stem Subtype======
{{HVvg|neh||u||intr|subjv=nē|nocat=1}}

====Irregular Verbs====
=====''Emagon''=====
{{HVvg|e|m||ēd||ē|em|nocat=1}}

=====''Gaomagon''=====
{{HVv|gao|m||gōnt||gō|nd|nocat=1}}

=====''Sagon''=====
{{HVvg|s|||ist|intr|3spai=issa |3ppai=issi |1sfai=kesan |3sfai=kessa |3pfai=kessi |iks=iks |futstem=kes |impfstem=īl |ptcpstem=iss|nocat=1}}

=====''Jagon''=====
{{HVvg|j|||ist|intr|1spai=jān |1ppai=jī |3spai=is |3ppai=isi |1sfai=īnna |3sfai=īlza |3pfai=īlzi |futstem=īl |impfstem=īl |psthabstem=id |saj=j|nocat=1}}

=====''Ilagon''=====
{{HVvg|i|l||ilt|intr|1sfai=unna|3sfai=ulza |3pfai=ulzi|futstem=ul|impfstem=ul|nocat=1}}

=====''Sahagon''=====
{{HVvg|sa|h||sēt|3spai=sas |3ppai=sēs |1saai=sīn |1sfai=sīnna |3sfai=sīlza |3pfai=sīlzi |futstem=sīl |impfstem=sīl |saa=sā |see=sē |saj=saj|nocat=1}}

===Verb Derivation===
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Verbal Prefixes | Verbal Prefixes]]''
====Instrumental Passive====
{{ID|Instrumental passive}}
The instrumental passive form of a verb describe actions directed from inanimate grammatical subjects, such as instruments and inanimate objects. The instrumental passive promotes an instrument (a noun in the instrumental case) to the subject. For some (but not all) verbs, the instrumental passive form is also mandatory if the subject is inanimate, even if it is not, strictly, an instrument. It is formed with the prefix {{m|hval|a-}} (which may also take the forms ''h-'', ''s-'' and ''z-'', depending on the phonological structure of the word). 

====Oblique Applicative====
{{ID|Oblique applicative}}
The oblique applicative promotes an indirect object (a noun in the dative case) to the direct object (which takes the accusative). It is formed with the prefix {{m|hval|i-}} (which may take the form ''j-'', depending on the phonological structure of the word). The prefixed form may take additional adpositional prefixes.

====Locative Applicative====
{{ID|Locative applicative}}
The locative applicative promotes the object of an adpositional phrase to a type of indirect object, which is in the dative case, or genitive if the noun is singular and the verb, which the noun must immediately precede, begins with a vowel. It is formed with the prefix {{m|hval|u-}} (which may take the form ''v-'', depending on the phonological structure of the word). The prefixed form may take additional adpositional prefixes, which may alter the form of the applicative prefix (for example, ''hemb-'' and ''vao-'').

==Numerals==
:''Main article: [[Appendix:High Valyrian numerals]]''
:''For grammatical number, [[#Number|see above]].''
High Valyrian has both cardinal and ordinal numerals. Cardinal numerals are used for counting items (e.g. one, two, three etc.). In High Valyrian, they can be declinable adjectives of any class, indeclinable adjectives, as well as nouns, and combinations thereof. Ordinal numerals describe the position of an item in a sequence (e.g. first, second, third etc.). In High Valyrian, they are all class III adjectives. Known numerals are listed as follows:
{{Appendix:High Valyrian numerals}}

==Syntax==
===Word Order===
High Valyrian is a strongly head-final language, and word order is subject–object–verb (SOV). Thus, in general, verbs follow their direct objects and adverbs which modify them; nouns follow the adjectives, demonstratives, possessors (genitive modifiers), locative modifiers, adpositional phrases and relative clauses which modify them; possessees follow possessors; adjectives follow the adverbs and adpositions which modify them; and most adpositions are postpositions, with only a few prepositions occuring. 

====Noun Phrases====
Modifiers generally precede their head noun. For example adjectives:
: '''Kirine ābra''' — "The happy woman"

Modifiers, such as adjectives, may also follow their head noun, although this is more marked and has a formal connotation:
: '''Ābra kirine''' — "The happy woman"

====Verb Phrases====
Subjects precede their verb, as in this example featuring an intransitive verb:
: '''Riña ēdrus.''' — "The girl is sleeping."

In verb phrases with transitive verbs, the word order is SOV. For example:
: '''Kepa gerpī ipradas.''' — "The father eats the fruits."

In verb phrases with ditransitive verbs, which take both a direct object and an indirect object, the indirect object most commonly precedes the direct object, as in the example below:
: '''Taobot rūklon tepan.''' — "I give the boy a flower."

While less common, the indirect object may also follow the direct object:
: '''Rūklon taobot tepan.''' — "I give the boy a flower." / "I give a flower to the boy."

Adverbs and adverbial phrases precede the verbs they modify:
: '''Havon qurdot paerī neveti.''' — "We carried the bread to the table slowly."

This is also true for locative adverbial phrases:
: '''Ziry navār ellas.''' — "She is hugging him on the lake."

The typical word order in High Valyrian verb phrases can thus be described as follows:
:  [subject noun phrase] [oblique object noun phrase] [indirect object noun phrase] [direct object noun phrase] [adverbial phrase] [verb]

=====Subject Pronouns=====
High Valyrian is a pro-drop language; that is, subject pronouns are generally omitted, since the person and number of the subject are indicated through verbal morphology: 
: '''Gevī ȳdrā.''' — "You are speaking beautifully."

Including the subject pronoun places emphasis on the subject:
: '''Ao gevī ȳdrā.''' — "<u>You</u> are speaking beautifully."

===Relative Clauses===
:''Main article: [[User:Najahho/High Valyrian Pronouns#Relatives|High Valyrian Pronouns § Relatives]]''
{{wl|Relative clauses}} are clauses which modify nouns or pronouns, and can often be translated as a phrase beginning with "who" or "that" in English. The noun which the relative clause modifies also has a role both in the relative clause and the matrix clause; it is ''shared''. In High Valyrian, relative clauses are followed by a relative adjective ('''lua''') or a relative pronoun ('''lȳ''' or '''līr'''), which link the relative clause to the matrix (containing) clause. They precede the nouns they modify in the case of relative adjectives, while relative pronouns can stand on their own. They are generally gapped, that is, the noun shared between the relative and matrix clauses is left out in the relative clause, as in English:
: '''Ābre ūndas lua vala raqiros issa.''' — "The man who saw the woman is a friend."

Furthermore, and unlike English, the relative adjective and pronoun take their case from the matrix clause. This can create ambiguous sentences, for example if the clause includes nouns of declensions which have merged the nominative and accusative cases:
: '''Tyvaros ūndas lua vala raqiros issa.''' — "The man ''who saw the snake'' is a friend." / "The man ''who the snake saw'' is a friend."

However, in such cases where gapping creates ambiguity, a pronoun or pronominal adjective referring to the shared noun may be included in the relative clause for clarity (a resumptive pronoun):
: '''Ziry tyvaros ūndas lua vala raqiros issa.''' — "The man who saw the snake is a friend."
: '''Tyvaros ziry ūndas lua vala raqiros issa.''' — "The man who the snake saw is a friend."

Similarly to English, there are few restrictions on the syntactic role the shared noun can have in the relative clause. It can be the subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a locative argument, a comparand, or an adpositional phrase. In all cases, resumptive pronominal arguments may be used for clarity:
::{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! Role
! Standard phrasing
! Precise phrasing
|-
! rowspan=2 | Indirect object
| '''Ābra rūklon teptas lua vala raqiros issa.'''<br/>''("The man who the woman gave a flower is a friend.")''
| '''Ābra <u>zijot</u> rūklon teptas lua vala raqiros issa.'''<br/>''("The man who the woman gave <u>him</u> a flower is a friend")''
|-
! colspan=2 | The man (to) whom the woman gave a flower is a friend.
|-
! rowspan=2 | Possessor 
| '''Ābra kepe rhēdes lua vala raqiros issa.'''<br/>''("The man who the woman knows the father is a friend.")''
| '''Ābra <u>zȳhe</u> kepe rhēdes lua vala raqiros issa.'''<br/>''("The man who the woman knows <u>his</u> father is a friend.")''
|-
! colspan=2 | The man whose father the woman knows is a friend.
|-
! rowspan=2 | Location
| '''Ābra morghūltas luon lenton pryjataks.'''<br/>''("The house that the woman died was destroyed.")''
| '''Ābra <u>konīr</u> morghūltas luon lenton pryjataks.'''<br/>''("The house that the woman died <u>there</u> was destroyed.")''
|-
! colspan=2 | The house where the woman died was destroyed.
|-
! rowspan=2 | Comparand
| '''Ābra kirinkte issa lua vala raqiros issa.'''<br/>''("The man who the woman is happier is a friend.")''
| '''Ābra <u>zijosy</u> kirinkte issa lua vala raqiros issa.'''<br/> ''(The man who the woman is happier <u>than him</u> is a friend.)''
|-
! colspan=2 | The man who the woman is happier than is a friend.
|-
! rowspan=2 | Adposition 
| '''Ābra dekurūptas lua vala raqiros issa.'''<br/>''("The man who the woman walked is a friend.")'' 
| '''Ābra <u>va zijot</u> dekurūptas lua vala raqiros issa.'''<br/>''("The man who the woman walked <u>up to him</u> is a friend.")''
|-
! colspan=2 | The man the woman walked up to is a friend.
|}

====Relative pronoun modifiers====
When a relative pronoun is used and the predicate of the relative clause is adjectival or genitival, the copula (the verb "to be") is not used. Instead, the adjective or genitive modifies the pronoun directly, and adjectives agree with it in case and number, e.g. '''kastor līr''' "that which is green" and '''valo lȳ''' "one which is a man's". As in this example: 
: '''Ñuhor līr gūrēnna.''' — "I will take what is mine."

===Questions===
====Yes–No Questions====
Yes–no questions have the same word order as a declarative sentence. The only difference is a that yes–no questions have a rising pitch toward the end:
: '''Udrirzi Valyrio ȳdrā?''' — "Do you speak Valyrian?"
Compare:
: '''Udrirzi Valyrio ȳdrā.''' — "You speak Valyrian."

====''Wh''-questions====
''Wh''-questions (questions with interrogative pronouns such as "who", "what", "when", and "how" ) display ''wh''-fronting, which means that the interrogative pronoun or adjective is moved to the front of the sentence compared to a corresponding declarative sentence, similar to English and many other European languages:

: '''<u>Skorverdon</u> jēdaro azantys ūndas?''' — "<u>How</u> old is the knight?", literally "<u>How many</u> years has the knight seen?"
: (''response''): '''Azantys <u>izule izulēpsā</u> jēdari ūndas.''' — "The knight is <u>forty-four</u> years old", literally "The knight has seen <u>forty-four</u> years".

===Coordination===
====Conjunctive lengthening====
{{ID|Conjunctive form}}When coordinating two or more non-modifying similar elements in High Valyrian, e.g. a group of verbs, adjectives or nouns, the common way is not to use the conjunction '''se''' "and". Instead, the last word in the list is modified. Its final vowel is lengthened and the word's stress shifts to the last syllable, in a process which can be termed ''conjunctive lengthening'' (or ''simple juxtaposition''):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;margin:auto;"
! 
! High Valyrian
! IPA
! English
|-
! No coordination
| vala ābra
| [ˈvala ˈaːbra]
| "the man the woman"
|-
! Coordination
| vala ''ābrā''
| [ˈvala aːˈbraː]
| "the man and the woman"
|}

This type of coordination is most commonly used for coordinating bare nouns, but sometimes verbs and adjectives too. It can also be applied to more complex elements, such as noun phrases, in which only the last word of the phrase is modified:
: '''Bisi ñuhor qȳbor ñuha velmā issi.''' — "These are my uncle and aunt."

Conjunctive lengthening can also be used when there are three or more consecutive elements. Similar to how, in English, "and" precedes the last word in the list, in High Valyrian, only the last word is modified; the rest are deemphasized, slightly, with the pitch peaks on the main stress topping out at a lower pitch than they would otherwise:
: '''Vale ābre azantī ūndan.''' — "I saw a man, a woman and a knight."

=====Diphthongs and long vowels=====

The basic strategy of lengthening-and-stress-shift cannot be straightforwardly applied when the final vowel is not a short monophthong. If the last vowel of the word is already long and not low (i.e. not '''ā'''), the stress shifts to that syllable, and either the suffix '''-(s)i''' or '''-(s)y''' is added to the modified word, depending on the final vowel. This is the same type of rounding vowel harmony seen in the subjunctive endings, i.e. '''-(s)y''' is added after '''ō''', '''ū''' and '''ȳ''', and '''-(s)i''' is added after '''ī''' and '''ē'''.  For example:
: ''' Jenti voktīsi ūndan.''' — "I saw the leader and the ''priests''."

Compare this with the following:
: ''' Jenti voktī ūndan.''' — "I saw the leader and the ''priest''."

The '''-s-''' is left out if the word ends in a consonant:
: '''Valot aōty rūkla teptan.''' — "I gave flowers to the man and to you."

If the final vowel is '''ā''', then the suffix '''-e''' is used, i.e. the vowel is diphthongized to '''āe''':
: '''Valā riñāe glaestan.''' — "I lived near the man and near the girl."

=====Synopsis=====
Below is a summary of the different phonological strategies for simple juxtaposition depending on the shape of the final syllable:

* Lengthening (short vowels): '''V → Vː'''
*: Occurs with final '''-a, -e, -i, -o, -u, -y, -aC, -eC, -iC, -oC, -uC''' and '''-yC'''.
** '''vala + rōbir = vala rōbīr''' "the man and the fig"
** '''rōbir + vala = rōbir valā''' "the fig and the man"
** '''valot + arakhot = valot arakhōt''' "to the man and to the arakh"
* Lengthening (short off-glide diphthongs): '''VV → VːV'''
*: Occurs with final '''-ae, -ao, -aeC''' and '''-aoC'''.
** '''vala + baes = vala bāes''' "the man and the summit"
** '''vala + ao = vala āo''' "the man and you"
** '''vala + jaos = vala jāos''' "the man and the dog"
* Lengthening (short on-glide diphthongs): '''VV → VVː'''
*: Occurs with final '''-ia, -ie, -io, -iaC, -ieC, -ioC, -ua, -ue, -uo, -uaC, -ueC''' and '''-uoC'''.
** '''vala + Valyria = vala Valyriā''' "the man and Valyria"
** '''vala + Targārien = vala Targāriēn''' "the man and the Targaryen"
** '''vala + Balerio = vala Baleriō''' "the man and Balerio"
* Epenthesis (non-low long vowels): '''Vː → Vːs(i/y)'''
*: Occurs with final '''-ē, -ī, -ō, -ū''' and '''-ȳ'''.
** '''valā + Aerȳ = valā Aerȳsy''' "near the man and near Aerys"
** '''valo + Illyriō = valo Illyriōsy''' "of the man and of Illyrio"
** '''valā + Alysannē = valā Alysannēsi''' "near the man and near Alysanne"
* Epenthesis (non-low long vowels with coda): '''VːC → VːC(i/y)'''
*: Occurs with final '''-ēC, -īC, -ōC, -ūC''' and -'''ȳC'''.
** '''valot + aōt = valot aōty''' "to the man and to you"
** '''vala + Illyrȳn = vala Illyrȳny''' "the man and a few Illyrios"
** '''valā + rōbīr = valā rōbīri''' "near the man and near the fig"
* Diphthongization (low long vowels): '''ā → āe''' 
*: Occurs with final '''-ā''' and '''-āC'''.
** '''valā + riñā = valā riñāe''' "near the man and near the girl"
** '''riñā + valā = riñā valāe''' "near the girl and near the man"
** '''valā + Maekār = valā Maekāer''' "near the man and near Maekar"

=====Compound numbers=====
Conjunctive lengthening is also used in compound numbers:
* ''' izula ampā''' "fourteen", literally "four and ten"
* '''lanti lantēpsā vali''' "twenty-two men", literally "two and twenty"

====Coordination with ''se''====
Coordination with '''se''' (which may also be termed ''complex coordination'') in cases where conjunctive lengthening is preferred is possible, but it is uncommon and considered formal. However, '''se''' is still the default coordinating conjunction in cases where lengthening cannot be used, for example when coordinating consecutive modifying elements, such as adjectives, or consecutive main clauses. When two larger phrases are being coordinated, the coordinating conjunction '''se''' thus is used, as shown below:
* '''bāne + adere = bane se adere''' "hot and fast"
* '''dohaeragon + morghūlagon = dohaeragon se morghūljagon''' "to serve and die"
* '''aderī + trūmirī = aderī se trūmirī''' "quickly and deeply"

When the coordination of two nouns is being emphasized, '''se''' may also be used (see also the next section):
* '''vala''' + '''jaos''' = '''vala se jaos''' "the man ''and'' the dog"

====Combined coordination====
To emphasize the "and", i.e. "X ''and'' Y", the two strategies can also be combined: [first element] + '''se''' +  [second element modified]. This can also have the interpretation "and very much also" and "both X and Y". As in the following example:
: '''Vala se ābrā sȳrī vāedis. ''' — "The man ''and (very much also)'' the woman sing well" or "Both the man and the woman sing well."
 
[[Category:High Valyrian language|Grammar]]